chapter iv- environment analysis and destination...

Chapter IV- Environment Analysis and Destination Development in Sikkim

Chapter- IV Environment Analysis and Destination Development in Sikkim

4.1 The Relationship between Tourism and Environment

4.2 Destination Environment and Sikkim

4.3 Destination Environmental Analysis and Change

4.4 Tourism Development Initiatives and Environmental Perspectives

4.5 Importance of Environment Analysis and Its Future Implications

4.6 Conclusion

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4.1 The Relationship between Tourism and Environment

f all the political, economic and social revolutions of the last century,

none has so fundamentally changed human values and behavior as the

environmental revolution (Mc Cormik,1995,p.11). Concern over the

relationship between humanity and the environment has, since the late 1960s,

remained high on the international political agenda. Attention is not only paid to the

exploitation and degradation of the global ecosystem but also to the socio-cultural,

political and economic systems underpinning excessive or inappropriate resource use.

Consequently, the competing perspectives on the means of achieving a more

sustainable future for the planet and its inhabitants have fuelled what has now become

a weary intellectual debate (Southgate and Sharpley, 2002; p. 231).Environment is

“the sum total of all conditions and influences that affected the development and life

of organisms.” The term ‘environment’ is not much different in tourism from its

generic meaning as used in any other subjects. But tourism is environment-related

and dependent as people visit a destination mainly for the distinct environment, if it is

leisure tourism and even for other purposes the environmental features of the area are

also extensively related. Systematically defined, tourism environment is that vast

array of factors which represent external (dis)-economies of a tourism resort: natural

… anthropological, economic, social, cultural, historical, architectural and

infrastructural factors which represent a habitat onto which tourism activities are

grafted and which is thereby exploited and changed by the exercise of tourism

business. (EC, 1993; 4) According to Mathieson and Wall (1982; p. 97), if tourism is

to be successful and sustained, it requires the protection of the scenic and historical

heritage of destination areas and in the absence of such attractive environment, there

would be little tourism. Ranging from the basic attractions of sun, sea and sand to the

unbounded appeal of historic sites and structure, the environment is the foundation of

the tourist industry. The following diagram would better explain the environmental

aspects of tourism.

O

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Figure 4.1: Potential Actor Groups Related to Tourism and Environmental Policies

Source: Adapted from Bill. B. and Hashimoto A., “Actors, Networks and Tourism Politics” in Buhalis D. and Costa C. (2006), eds, “Tourism Management Dynamics: Trends, management and tools”, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 157

Many research studies have represented environment for tourist destinations in a

different way as economic, social, cultural and environmental inclusion has been

influencing and significantly increasing the scope and range of tourism environment

with its conventional and natural trends. Holden (2002) discussed tourism

environment by considering different and distinct perceptions of tourists which is also

effective in the narrow sense of each and every destination. This approach also tends

to the fullness but in many cases loses its clarity and significant presence of other

interest groups involved in tourism environment. So, the destination environment

(Adapted from Holden, 2000; p.49-50) to the tourists and tourism industry is

expressed through different perceptions as given here under.

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Tourism and EnvironmentalPolicies in a Tourist

Destination

National Actors Groups

National environmental NGOsNational tourism organizationsGovt. ministriesNational ministry

Local Actor GroupsLocal communitiesLocal tourism businessesTourism employeesLocal Govt.Local environmental NGOs

International Actor GroupsNational tour operationsInternational tour operationsInternational environmental NGOsEU


Figure 4.2: Destination Environment to Tourists and Other Groups

Source: Adapted from Holden et.al. ( 2002)

Probably the single greatest concern for every country is the impact of tourism on its

environment (Naisbitt, 1994, p. 140). So far, the travel and tourism industry has taken

little active part in framing the environmental policies so vital to its own interests

(Economist Intelligence Unit, 1992). Wahab ( 1975, 49) claims “ the genuine

environment always attracts more tourists than the imitation… the creation of

artificial environment, similar to those which the tourists have at home, does not

promote tourism in the long term”. On the other hand, mass tourism is economical

and socio-psychological (as many people seem to enjoy being a mass tourist) and

full-fledged alternative tourism can not replace conventional tourism as it is more

realistic to concentrate efforts in attempts to reform the worst prevailing situations,

not the development of alternatives. The more sensitive approach to tourism

development strives to satisfy the needs of local people, tourists, and the resource

base in a complementary rather than a competitive manner. So, each destination is

not only unique with respect to its physical resource base, but also for different

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Destination Environment as setting for action

Destination Environment as a social system

Destination Environment as emotional territory

Destination Environment as self

Functional role: support specific activities, a place for hedonism etc.

Interactive role: a place for social interaction

Emotional role: evokes feelings of well being,pride etc.

Identity role: the environment becomes part of the self

Tourist has conscious and unconscious disregard for environment

Tourist focuses on social interaction: environment is irrelevant to experience

Tourist involves himself/herself in environment: gazing, painting etc.

Tourist integrates with place; adapts behavior to blend with environment


perceptions and outlook of that resource base with respect to the different groups and

stakeholders both within and external to the destination. In other words, even within

particular destinations numerous environments potentially exist. From the view of

management, each destination is a sort of business unit or strategic business unit

(SBU) or, more precisely, a corporation comprising numerous business units. All the

facilities, attractions and other organizations that collectively supply tourist services

and experiences in the destination are, in a sense, different divisions within the

overall destination business and ensure paradoxical competitive and cooperation.

Each destination (including those in the travel and tourism sector) / corporation/

strategic business unit (SBU) is intended to follow a strategic management process

that seeks to achieve a ‘goodness of fit’ between their resources and the external

environment in order to remain competitive and profitable. So, while framing strategy

for a destination, its mission, vision, capacities, resources, structure and system must

play an interactive role with what do we mean by the term ‘destination environment’.

Destination development plan or process should adequately contribute to destination

needs/community development/sustainable development issues as an interactive

process of destination capitals and ‘Destination resource pulls’ with external forces

and tourism development opportunities. But the concept of environmental

management of a destination development program deliberately deals with specific

issues or factors from within a holistic environmental perspective. Otherwise,

comprehension of actual intricate environmental conditions would remain

undisclosed and misleading results may come out. Following diagram discussing the

relationship of social goals, economic goals and environment and resource goals and

their logical relationship is given here under for the better destination environmental

analysis of Sikkim.

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Exhibit 4.1: Relationship between Social goals, Economic Goals and

Environment and Resource Goals

Source: After Sadler & Wright (1993)

In the context of Sikkim, integrated land use planning and suitable use of unused

land, implementation of Ten ‘R-Word’ guide to corporate actions1 ( Middleton,1998;

p. 133-140), updating environmental laws, control of air and water pollution,

population stabilization and human settlements, use of non-polluting renewable

energy system are important issues to be considered. Thus a destination area would be

well advised to retain those elements or priority issues which made it distinctive, and

to present it’s cultural heritage in such a way that it would be both meaningful for

themselves and convenient for the visitor. Conservationists and some resource

managers now claim that the tourism industry runs the risk of spoiling its main

attraction- the natural environment. It is also acknowledged that there will,

increasingly, need to be some trade-offs between tourism and the environment.

However, it becomes difficult to limit visitors once a location has gained a reputation 1 Ten ‘R-Word’ guide to corporate actions comprises Recognize, Reduce, Refuse, Refuse, Replace, Retrain, Re-engineer, Replace, Reeducate, Reward

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as an attractive destination (Davis & Weiler, 1992; p. 313). Budowski (1977, 3) feels

that “for the majority of cases the relationship between tourism and conservation is

usually one of coexistence moving towards conflict, mainly because of an increase in

tourism and the shrinking of natural areas.” Various projects and environmental

studies conducted so far exhibit the same relationship with respect to the important

destination specific forces/ variables/ attributes. Mercer (2004; p.466) suggests that

‘arguably biodiversity decline is the most serious global environmental problem and

is representative of an emerging set of new problems in tourism management that is

the subject of ongoing, and at times acrimonious debate’. Weaver et.al.(2000)

identifies three key elements in terms of the management implications of socio-

cultural and environmental impacts of tourism. The first is that all tourism-related

activity causes a certain amount of stress and the critical issue is whether proactive

management strategies can be used to reduce the level of stress to acceptable levels.

Acceptability is influenced by the perceptions of the benefits received from tourism.

The second point is that stress is linked to carrying capacity, which varies from site to

site and, in some cases, can be manipulated through adaptive measures. However,

ecosystems, societies and cultures all have different levels of resiliency and

adaptability. Their third key point is that carrying capacities are difficult to measure

as stress and its impacts are incremental and long term in nature.

Budowski (1976) suggested that three basic relationships typically interacting with

the ecosystem, societies and culture are-

Exhibit 4.2: Different Interactions among Ecosystem, Society and Culture

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Conflict Tourism and the environment is in

conflict when tourism has a detrimental

impact on the environment.

Coexistence Tourism and environmental conservation

can exist in a situation where the two

have relatively little contact, because

either both sets of supporters remain in

isolation or there is a lack of development

or administrative barriers. However, the

situation ‘rarely remains static,

particularly as an increase of tourism is

apt to induce substantial changes’

Budowski 1976, p. 27).

Symbiosis Tourism and environmental conservation

can be mutually supportive and beneficial

when they are organized to ensure that

tourists benefit and the environment

improvements in management practices.

This relationship may have economic

advantages and contribute to the quality

of life in host communities.

Source : Hall, C.M. (1998). Introduction to Tourism: Development, Dimension & Issues. P- 226

While analyzing the relationship between tourism and environment in Sikkim the

total area covered by the Ministry of Environment and Forest i.e. the ratio of the

reserve forest to the total area and its interaction with different stakeholders need to

be taken care. The fragility of the ecosystem, disruption of breeding habits, changes

in flora and faunal species composition need to be measured with its specific impacts

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on tourism. Analyzing the impacts of tourism on the biological, economic, socio-

cultural environment needs is an extensive research.

4.2 Destination Environment and SikkimDestination environment in Sikkim is discussed in this chapter under three subheads

viz. ecological environment, social environment and economic environment.

Ecological Environment of Sikkim

Sikkim includes the lesser Himalaya, Central Himalaya, and the Tethys Himalaya. It

is essentially a mountainous state without flat land areas. The mountains rise in

elevation northward. The northern portion of the state is deeply cut into steep

escarpments, and except in the Lachen and Lachung valleys, is not populated.

Southern Sikkim is lower, more open, and fairly well cultivated. This configuration of

the state is partly due to the direction of the main drainage, which is southern. The

physical configuration of Sikkim is also partly due to geological structure. Major

portion of the state is covered by Pre-Cambrian rock and is much younger in age. The

Northern, Eastern and Western portion of the State are constituted of hard massive

gneissose rocks capable of resisting denudation. The central and Southern portion is

formed of comparatively soft, thin, salty and half-schistose rocks, which denudes very

easily. The trend of the mountain system is in a general east-west direction. However,

chief ridges run in a more or less North South direction. The Rangeet and the Teesta,

which form the main channels of drainage, run nearly North-South. The valleys cut

by these rivers and their chief feeders are very deep. The valleys are rather open

towards the top, but usually attain a steep gorge like structure as we approach the bed

of the rivers. There are 180 perennial lakes of different altitudes. There are many hot

water springs in the state. These are Phur-cha-chu, Ralang cha-chu, Yumthang,

Yumesamdong . The perpetual snow line in Sikkim may be approximately at 5500 m.

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Table 4.1: Features of Physical Environment of Sikkim

Resources FeaturesRivers Two major river systems originating from glaciers,

Rangit (West Sikkim), and Teesta (North Sikkim).

Ecological zones Alpine (>4,000 m), sub-alpine (3,000-4,000 m), cool

temperate (2,200-3,000 m), warm temperate (1,400-

2,200 m), and subtropical (300-1,400 m).

Terrain Mostly sloping land only with scarce flat lands in

valley. These are marginal lands

Forest Lush green board-leaved mixed forests in subtropical

and temperate zones. Silver fir and rhododendron

forests in the sub-alpine zone

Unique/special flora Rhododendrons, orchid, medicinal plants, and a

large variety of wild edible plants apart from plants

of academic interest.

Issues of concern and

reassessment

Specific habitat degradation and loss have caused a

threat to:

1. Wildlife such as Red Panda, Thar(s), and Musk

Deer, etc.

2. Plant diversity such as medicinal plants (Aconitum

sp, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurrooa,

Swertia chirata, Podophyllum hexandrum), wild

edibles (Machilus edulis, Bassia buteracea,

Elaeocarpus sikkimensis, Elaegnus latifolia, etc.),

wild orchids, and some species of rhododendron.

Policies and execution Creation of natural conservation areas such as the

Kanchanjunga National Park, Shingba

Rhododendron Sanctuary, Kyongnosla Alpine

Sanctuary

Source : Envis Centre Sikkim on Ecotourism

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Sikkim houses flora and fauna of all the three main regions i.e. tropical, temperate,

and alpine zones. State has not experienced a single case of laxity and to compromise

on this critical issue. However, other issues related to carrying capacity which include

the physical burden of these forces as a pressure on land and other natural resources

are quite gigantic. All these incur a huge development and environmental cost to the

State which many other States in India do not have to incur. This also means that a

significant portion of the developmental resources are spent to maintain this supreme

national interest. The onus of protecting and conserving the significant portion of the

fragile Eastern Himalayas including the mountain range and its environment has been

with the people and Government of Sikkim. The protection of bio-diversity and the

forward and backward linkages exhibiting from it to the entire Himalayan community

and the plains land have never been quantified. However, many quarters are not able

to appreciate the work Sikkim and Sikkimese are doing for the sustainability of the

region. This makes Sikkim’s development options and maneuverings very limited.

The basic statistics of flora and fauna of Sikkim is given here under.

Table 4.2: Flora and fauna of Sikkim

Type Number

Mammals 144 species

Birds 550 species

Butterflies and Moths 650 species

Reptiles 33 species

Frogs 16 species

Orchids 550 species,95 Genera

Rhododendrons 36 species, 45 varieties

Flowering Plants Over 4000 species

Ferns and Allies 300 species

Conifers 9 species

Medicinal plants Not enumerated

Source : Economic Survey 2006-07, Govt. of Sikkim

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There are 6 wildlife sanctuaries in the state which are set aside for protection and

conservation of the endangered flora and fauna. Following figure is given here under

with a detail structure.

Table 4.3: Wildlife Sanctuaries in Sikkim

Name of Sanctuary and Location Size of the Sanctuary

Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary,

North Sikkim

Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, East

Sikkim

Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary,East

Sikkim

Moinam Wildlife Sanctuary, South

Sikkim

Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary,

West Sikkim

Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, East

Sikkim

43.00 sq.km.

51.76 sq.km.

31.00 sq.km.

34.35 sq.km.

104.00 sq.km.

208.00 sq.km.

Source : www.stdc.org 2010

Social Environment of Sikkim

The present multiethnic society of Sikkim is the result of the perpetual co-existence

of different aboriginal and migrated communities for a long period of time. The

society of this small beautiful land is a joint exuberance of Buddhist-Hindu-Lepcha

culture though the influence of increasing Christianization is prevalent. The residents

in this land are having a huge impact of the mountains and as such they are peace-

loving, painstaking, honest, hospitable, and happy with their basic needs and

aspiration. It is praiseworthy that the standard of living of the people has been

improving rapidly with the adoption of modernity. Literacy rate of Sikkim with

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69.68% (2001) is above the national average of 65.38% supported by the monthly

expenditure of Rs. 960 per student is far above the all India average of Rs. 210 per

student (Sikkim Human Development Report 2001). The teacher student ratio of 1:19

at the primary level is considered to be better than the all India ratio of 1:46 in 1995.

Even though the state performs well on its Gender Development Index (GDI) the sex

ratio is found to be negative at all levels except in the middle School. The drop out

rate at school level is high and it is higher for girls because of their early marriage.

Over 60% of rural women and 70% of urban women get married before they are 20

years old. The median age at marriage is 19.8 years—more than 3 years higher than

the national average of 16.4 years. Some 79 per cent of women have access to money

as against the national average of 60 per cent and 28 per cent in Nagaland. Married

women (42 per cent), do not need permission to visit friends and relatives, the

proportion is 24 per cent for India as a whole. Only 11 per cent of ever-married

women have been beaten or physically mistreated since the age of 15 years—the

lowest proportion in the North-East. The proportion for all India is 21 per cent. In

1991, East district reported a literacy rate of 65.1 per cent in the age group of greater

than seven. West district reported the same rate of only 45.6 per cent in which rural

female literacy rate was only 34.8 per cent. Again, the urban male literacy in East

district was significantly 85.7 per cent in the same year. Studies have shown that

Family Health and Education are positively linked with the level of Mother’s

education. Sikkim’s health standards have improved significantly over the last 15

years. Better health and Medical Facilities have hindered the infant mortality rate

from 88 per 1000 in 1988 to 51 per 1000 in 1997 against the national rate of 71 per

thousand. The birth rate of 1997 was 19.8 per 1000 and the death rate was 6.5 per

1000, which are lower than the all India average of 27.2 and 8.9 per 1000

respectively. The state also pays for secondary and tertiary health and treatment in

and outside the state. According to 2001 Census, the sex ratio in India is 933 Female

per 1000 males, in which Sikkim has lower of 875 Females per 1000 Males. Sikkim

reports a Human Development Index (HDI) value of 0.532 for 1998—lower than all

India HDI of 0.563. However, both per capita income and the HDI value fail to

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capture the true vulnerability of the people, the insecurity of the population, and the

challenges for ensuring sustainable human development. Despite the relatively high

levels of per capita income, the proportion of population living below income poverty

has gone up from 36 per cent in 1987–8 to 41 per cent in 1993–4. There is, however,

a large disparity in the prevalence of income poverty between rural and urban areas.

In 1993–94, for instance, only 8 per cent of the urban population lived below the

poverty line. The corresponding figure for rural areas was more than five times higher

—at 45 per cent. There has been a considerable expansion in the physical

provisioning of basic social services. Much of the provisioning of health care is by

the public sector. But the health status of people needs considerable improvement. In

1998–99, 61 per cent of women were reported suffering from anemia. The national

average is 52 per cent. Similarly, 77 per cent of children below 3 years were found to

be anaemic. However, a small population size dispersed over hilly tracts makes the

provisioning of such services very difficult. As a result, the reach of health services

remains limited. According to NFHS-2, during the late period of the last decade of the

twentieth century only 47 per cent of children between 12–23 months were fully

immunized, 32 per cent of births were delivered in a medical institution, 35 per cent

of deliveries were assisted by a health professional. Gangtok, the capital city, has

benefited the most from the rapid expansion in economic and social opportunities.

Equal gains are yet to reach in all places with a decentralized and improved manner.

Despite being more affluent, Gangtak is not without its set of human development

concerns. The quality of life is constrained by severe problems of over-crowding,

congestion, and different types of pollution. Women enjoy relatively greater freedoms

than other parts of the country. According to the Census of India 1991, around 38 per

cent of women participated in the total workforce of Sikkim against the national

average of 20 per cent only. Another striking feature of Sikkim is the absence of

gender differentials along many indicators of human development. In 1998–99, for

instance, 83.2 per cent of boys and 82.6 per cent of girls between 6–17 years attended

school. Nevertheless, women still face unequal opportunities in a variety of spheres.

Women still remain largely involved in traditional but unpaid tasks of community

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life. Girls are typically denied the opportunity to pursue higher education since it

often involves moving out of the village, district, and even the State. Socio-cultural

and family considerations often deny women the opportunity to pursue employment

outside the State. The State remains extremely dependent on agriculture which, for

instance, accounts for nearly 40 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at current

prices. In 1991, 65.6 per cent of the main workers were dependent on agriculture,

either as cultivator or as agricultural laborers. Food production has been declining in

recent years. Agricultural productivity is stagnant, dependency on rain fed agriculture

remains high, shifting cultivation is still prevalent on a large scale, land holdings are

small and dispersed, and production technology is outdated in most parts. However,

there is a great deal of scope for commercial crops—cardamom, oranges and flowers,

but the full potential is yet to be tapped. The potential of agriculture to absorb young

people is limited. There has been an impressive growth in incomes in Sikkim in

recent years. Effective policies have been put in place to ensure that the benefits of

growth reach the people and they are able to secure many of their basic social and

economic rights. Between 1988–91, the government consciously stepped up

investments in the social sectors, particularly those related to health and education.

The State has a traditional culture of collective decision making and dispute

resolution. Nevertheless this community participation needs to be strengthened in

order to ensure the success of the development projects—through all their phases—as

they have an impact on the environment and therefore on the lives of the people.

Community participation in development projects will also influence structural

reforms positively and help improve the quality of life in the State. Sikkim has the

potential to become the first ‘poverty free’ State in India by assuring every citizen

social justice, equality and a decent standard of living. To achieve this, concerted

public action is needed to focus on ensuring balanced development, enlarging

employment opportunities, safeguarding environmental resources, and putting in

place a responsive system of governance. The State Government has taken several

steps to ensure sustainable development which does not have to imply the destruction

of natural resources and significant and equal socio-economic and cultural

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development. Another important social practice in Sikkim is how they get their

drinking water collected and purified. It is found from the empirical evidence that tap

water is the main source of drinking water in rural and urban Sikkim followed by

spring water which is used more in rural Sikkim though the use of tap water remains

more high all over Sikkim. Following is the source of drinking water in all four

districts in Sikkim

Sources East West South North Total

Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

Tap 74.8 89.9 85.7 76.4 78 61.60 63.60 91.40 77.80 84.50

Natural

Spring

20.0 8.10 10.4 15.10 15.50 31.10 33.10 6.90 17.10 12.30

Others 5.2 1.90 3.9 8.50 6.50 7.30 3.2 1.60 5.10 3.20

Table 4.4: Source of Drinking Water in SikkimSource : Gyatso and Bagdass, 1998

Note: Figures indicate the percentage of respondents collecting their drinking water from nearby source.

A significant number of rural people don’t purify water at all while the maximum

number of citizen in rural and urban areas purifies water through boiling. The use of

flush toilet in urban Sikkim is 82.9% while 9.10% of the urban population does not

have any latrine. More than 30% of the rural population has no latrine at all. Besides,

most of the sheds for the livestock are unhygienic and in deplorable condition. The

over all health services in Sikkim is East–Sikkim centric with only one of its State

referral hospital and maximum number of community health centres and primary

community health centres. The quick air transport service is in vogue for emergency

and critical cases of patients. Following is the table given here under showing the

distribution health services in all four districts of Sikkim.

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Economic Environment of Sikkim

In the 10th Five Year Plan draft document of the Union Government, with a growth

rate of 8.3 percent in the 9th Five Year Plan (1997-2001) Sikkim was second to

only Pondicherry, Chandigarh and Delhi. The State was ahead of many other well

performing states. The growth estimates in the last four years of the 10 th Five Year

Plan do indicate that Sikkim has not only maintained growth regime achieved

in the Ninth Five Year Plan but also strived to enter into a higher and double digit

growth rate in the 10th Plan. This would certainly help achieve the national goal of 8

percent growth rate for the 10th Plan period (2002-2007). There has been a steady

increase in the share of the tertiary sector also, which recorded an increase from

41.79 per cent to 49.24 per cent during the same period. Within the tertiary

sector also, sub-sectors like transport, banking, insurance, communications and

public administration are accounting for a much larger share of the State’s GDP.

Public administration alone contributed to the extent of 30 per cent. Plan allocations

in different plans have recorded very significant jumps. The allocations to different

sectors have also been as per the priority discussed and declared by the

Government and also the needs and aspirations of the people of Sikkim at large.

The State has been raising the issue of the injustice done to Sikkim in the

award by the12th Finance Commission. The award of Rs 188.67 crores as against

the projection for post-devolution non-plan revenue deficit grant of Rs 2681.50 crores

for 2005-2010 and the abrupt withdrawal of subsidies in the power and

transport sector have made it extremely difficult to both carry forward the reform

process and achieve a higher growth regime of 10 percent. This has naturally tended

to jeopardize the implementation of the plan and other development programmes.

Unlike all the other North Eastern States which have received more than what they

received under the 11th Finance Commission award, Sikkim was awarded a

strikingly lower amount of Rs 188.67 crore as against the awards of Rs 841 crores by

the 11th Finance Commission.

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4.3 Destination Environmental Analysis and Change Tourism is an industry but it is also a form and agent of development and change and

must be recognized as such. If, controlled and managed properly, it can be a non or

low-consumptive utilizer of resources and can operate on a sustainable basis.

However if developed beyond the capacity of the environment, the resource base, and

the local population to sustain it, it ceases to be a renewable resource industry and it

instead becomes…..a boom-bust enterprise. (Butler 1992, p.34). Beyond its economic

importance, tourism development can promote the preservation of cultural and social

values, including historical places of interest that might otherwise be lost. This is

particularly true for nature tourism because it promotes culturally and ecologically

sensitive travel. Environmental strategies for tourist destinations are implemented by

putting “Environmental and Accessibility Strategies together (Murphy, P.,1983; p.

60-78).” Because accessibility, very often, resurrects the place itself but at the same

time degrades wilderness of that area and as such the core point of strategy is how to

seek balance between tourism development and conservation. Practically we have to

consider the balance among tourism, conventional economic development, and

conservation which are interrelated, interdependent, and intricate and in some cases

inter-contradictory. By grouping these forces we get some factors initiating changes

while others are resisting the same. Here lies the introduction of a detailed macro and

micro environmental analyses and consequent change management and development

of proactive future strategies, based on sustainable use. Kotler (1982, p. 84) argued

that if an organization is going to adapt to changing circumstances, it must figure out

what it must adapt to. So, keeping in view all these forces, we can prepare a ‘force

field’ as introduced by Kurt Lewin. Here we are modifying Lewin’s model with

respect to a destination although the basics are the same.

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Figure 4.3: Modified Lewin’s Model with respect to a Destination

Kurt Lewin introduced a Three-Step Model of understanding change that we can

discuss with respect to a destination as there is a little difference in the concept of

change for an organization and that of the destination.According to Lewin (1947)

organizational (destination) changes could be understood in terms of three

consecutive processes: unfreezing i.e. shaking up the organization to adopt or accept

new change, moving i.e. bringing about the requisite change (structural change or

change in internal system etc.), refreezing i.e. cementing in or locking in the changes

and prevent the organization from going back to its old days. Unfreezing involves

introducing measures that will enable employees to abandon their current practices or

cultural norms in preparation for the change. In many organizations nothing has

changed for many years and unfreezing is necessary as a ‘shaking-up’ phase. The

impetus for unfreezing can come from either inside or outside the organization itself.

Changing market conditions, for example, sometimes give employees warning that

change will be imminent. A particular market crisis may precipitate the expectation

amongst employees that change must happen as a result. Internally, a management

shake-up, a profit warning or talk of restructuring may bring about similar

expectations. Moving to the new level involves bringing about the requisite change

itself. The time period given over to this phase varies widely. Structural change can

usually be brought about relatively quickly. Changes in internal systems sometimes

take longer (such as the introduction of new quality or information systems), whilst

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changing culture can take years. Refreezing is necessary to ‘lock in’ the changes and

to prevent the organization from going back to its old ways. Again, we would usually

take cultural changes to require more ‘cementing in’ than some other changes and

some resolve might be required on the part of senior management. Again the pace at

which change happens can usually be divided into two categories step and

incremental (see Exhibit 13.5). There are two factors that determine which is the most

appropriate (Quinn and Voyer, 1998).

Exhibit 4.3: Step and Incremental Pace in the Change of Organizational

(Destination) Environment

Source : Southgate, C., Sharpley, R. Tourism, Development and the Environment. In Sharpley

R. and D.J. Telfer ( Ed.). (2002). Aspects of Tourism: Tourism and Development, Concepts and

Issues (p. 231-262).

All broad issues of the macro destination environment should be categorized. One of

the well accepted techniques is STEEP (Socio-Demographical, Technological,

Economic, Environmental and Political) Analysis for a destination. While discussing

STEEP Analysis it should be noted that some factors are generic and others are

typically oriented to travel and tourism. Peattie and Moutinho (2000) provided a

review of some of the major environmental influences in travel and tourism using an

extended framework, which they termed SCEPTICAL2 analysis. This acronym stands

2 SCEPTICAL Analysis stands for Social, Cultural, Economic, Physical, Technical, International, Communication and Infrastructure, Administrative and Institutional, Legal and Political Analysis with exhibited factors.

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for Social, Cultural, Economic, Physical, Technical, International, Communications

and infrastructure, Administrative and institutional, Legal and political. Lockwood

and Medlik (2001), Bulhalls (2001), Vogel (2001), Cooper and Gilbert (1998) and

Vanhove (2001) also give some interesting and delicate insights in discussing the key

macro environmental factors affecting the travel and tourism industry. In her analysis,

Auliana Poon (1993) explained the issues of radical changes and found out that a new

tourism was developing to replace the old tourism based on mass tourism. The five

key forces (consumers, technology, production, management and ‘frame conditions’)

which had served to create mass tourism in the first place were themselves changing

to create the new tourism. The Porter (1980) model emphasizes the competitive

forces of enterprises and (to a lesser extent) of destinations, and the related generic

competitive strategies. Porter (1990) model emphasizes the home environment and

related determinants.

Destination environment changes with the passage of time and so the planning

process. Planning process generally changes from active to reactive as tourism

develops into mass tourism (Butler 1992; p.39). There is a need to continually review

strategic objectives because the environment is always changing. The purpose of

strategy is to make an organization/ destination to fit into its environment. By

achieving this, the probabilities that it will survive and prosper are enhanced. There

are a number of areas of which we need to be aware in order to effectively implement

a strategy for a travel and tourism destination. Implementation of a destination

development strategy typically involves the (i) adequacy of a destination’s resource

base; (ii) the readiness of the destination’s culture and structure to undertake the

proposed strategy; (iii) the management of any changes that are needed to implement

the strategy; (iv) the extent to which the organization positions itself in respect to its

geographic coverage and international presence.

In implementing the strategic process it is necessary to be aware not only of changes

occurring to the internal and external environment, but also of changes to the subject

matter itself.

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While analyzing the environment of Sikkim as a destination, following factors we can

consider to categorize its features and to describe the strategic orientation.. These are-

(i) Economic environment,

(ii) Physical/ ecological environment,

(iii) Technological environment,

(iv) Social environment,

(v) Cultural environment,

(vi) Political environment,

(vii) Legal environment.

All these issues are revolving around a typical geographical segregation viz. within

the destination and outside the destination, though this kind of specification is not

fully free from criticism. The following issues of discussing all the aspects of

environment should be discussed from within the destination and outside the

destination but the actual fact is how the intricate issues involved in each aspect of

environment are interacting and synthesizing among themselves and integrating with

other aspects. Political environment accentuating the major decisions relating to other

aspects of the environment is typically preceding and interacting with the socio-

cultural issues of the society but political ideology of a society is responsible for the

major decisions of tourism development and management. Economic environment is

also influenced by political aspects for the generation and distribution of financial

resources, institutionalized and structural issues of tourism in an economy. The

interaction of the economic issues from within the destination and with the outside

the destination should be properly assessed to analyze economic conditions and

related significant changes therein. Legal environment is intended to be proactive,

futuristic and very often compared from one destination to another with reference to

these qualities. Legal environment has a conventional contradiction with the

development procedure and as such seeks a balance between these two. Of late, all

places accept the increasing contribution of technology as a key factor of all business

and economic activities and in tourism the technological environment has an

extensive role to play with respect to each element and jointly with all.

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Broadly divided macro and micro tourism environment are significantly influencing

tourism development and impact assessment in Sikkim. The opinion survey for hosts

conducted to analyze economic, socio-cultural and ecological problems and prospects

associated with tourism environment and its development in Sikkim. More

specifically, the six broad areas or factors of tourism environment of Sikkim viz.

importance of guest-host relationship, need for outside investment for tourism

development, level and effectiveness of tourism legislation, type of tourists and its

compatibility, extent of alternative approaches taken by the government to utilize

tourism as a community development tool, extent of sustainable practices followed in

destination management were addressed in the survey. Each one of these variables

was ranked at five point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. A

suitable nonparametric Kruskal Wallis Rank test was used with the null hypothesis

that ‘individual wise ranks are consistent’ and alternative hypothesis that ‘individual

wise ranks are not consistent’.

4.4 Tourism Development Initiatives and Environmental

Perspectives The tourism policy of Sikkim is revolving around sustainable economic practices and

the State Government is strongly determined to develop and promote Sikkim as an

ultimate eco tourism destination with quality tourism practices from all concerned

issues. Following are the initiatives contributing to sustainable tourism development

in Sikkim.

Tourist hotels and eco lodges are a priority for tourism sector in Sikkim.

Today, Sikkim can boast of more than a couple of three- star hotels. For the

high-income visitor, a five-star hotel is coming up at Pangthan in East Sikkim

for which a memorandum of understanding was signed. The numbers of

tourist hotels and available beds have increased manifold in the last ten years.

Sikkim Industrial Development Investment Corporation (SIDICO), in

association with the Voluntary Health Association of Sikkim (VHAS),

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promotes environment friendly tourism in two remote villages, ‘Rong’ in the

South District and ‘Lading’ in the West District. An interesting finding from

these projects is that success in involving villagers in the development work

and effecting changes among the community is inversely related to

accessibility to government funding. In ‘Lading’, which is more remote than

Rong, and thus had lower recourse to government resources, the project was

able to secure higher levels of village participation.

Eco-tourism project in Assam Lingzey (near Gangtok) run by project KEEP

(Khedi Eco-tourism and Eco-development Promotion) local residents offer

rooms in their homes for home-stays and work as guides for trekkers

traversing the Khedi route and for day-long hikes through the village and

neighboring areas. By involving visitors in their traditional way of life, the

project encourages the local Bhutia people to retain the traditional features of

their homes, local customs, and sensitizes village inhabitants and visitors to

the importance of environmental preservation.

To promote village tourism, thirty model villages having all the basic and

modern facilities are being constructed in different parts of the State. All these

will enable the visitors to enjoy a first-hand experience of the rich heritage

and lifestyle of Sikkim. The Government is ensuring that these model villages

should be included in every tourist’s itinerary.

To enable tourists to comfortably visit the old temples, monasteries, churches,

Gurudwaras and mosques and other shrines in Sikkim, pilgrim tourism is

being promoted vigorously. Sikkim has immense potentialities for Buddhist

tourism that can directly ensure foreign tourist arrival and increase per capita

spending. A Pilgrim cum Cultural Center was proposed on top of the hill at

Solophok which is 5 Km away from Namchi town in South District. This hill

is opposite to Samduptse Hill where Statue of Guru Padamasambhava exists.

The State government has now proposed to support at least one tourist centre

in each Gram Panchayat Unit in the State.

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Adventure Tourism is one of the prime tourist products of Sikkim. About 80%

of the foreign tourists come to Sikkim with their prime motivation to go for

trekking and biking on the mountains of Sikkim and for Water Sports in

Teesta and Rangit.

Among domestic tourists also, the number of youths interested in adventure

tourism has been increasing every year. There is a huge market for adventure

tourism in Sikkim. The State Government has identified and promoted

adventure tourism in the five main routes which include “Monastic trek” (51

kms), “Rhododendron Trek” (18 kms), “Khangchendzonga Trek” (88 kms),

“Coronation Trek” (60 kms) and “Kasturi Orar Trek” (78 kms).

The Himalayan Centre for Adventure Tourism is being established at

Chemchey Village. The centre will further boost the activities of Government

in the adventure tourism sector. This will also add a new facet of “mountain

tourism” in the overall tourism development interventions in the State. Three

more peak which are below 20000 ft viz., Brum Khangtse, Lama Angden and

Frey peak have been opened for alpine expeditions in 2005.

A new adventure tourist complex, the Rangit Water World (RWW) at the

NHPC (National Hydle Power Complex Dam at Legship - the first of its kind

for boating and rafting in dam water – has been inaugurated. It is a new tourist

spot that provides a major employment opportunity for the local youth.

The Surajkund Mela near Delhi attracts lakhs of visitors in February every

year as it promotes crafts from all over India. Sikkim was the theme of the

Surajkund Mela in 2002 with its crafts, folk arts, and heritage. New projects

like Nagi Dara Lake Development, South Sikkim, and WSA at Simchuthang,

South Sikkim and at Sirwani have been completed.

Touch screen kiosks have been installed at Pelling, Pemayangtse, Siliguri,

Kolkata, Delhi, Rangpo, and Gangtok. Supply of adventure tourism related

equipments and angling equipments has been made and a number of way side

amenities including cafeteria, public convenience, information centers, guest

houses, and village craft centre have been created .

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A range of new tourist attractions including 135 ft statue of Guru

Padmasambhava at Samdruptse, South Sikkim and Tashi View Point, East

Sikkim, Water Garden, Martam, East Sikkim, development of seven sisters

water fall at Menronggong in North Sikkim, construction of tourist

complex/trekking camp at Yuksam and development of Rock Garden at Rimbi

,West Sikkim has been constructed. Besides cleaning drive of the existing

trekking trails and Tsomgo Lake, training on Water Sports was conducted by

National Institute of Water Sports ( NIWS) , Goa, for introduction of boating

at Aritar Lake and Uttaray in the near future.

The State has organized a Tourism Orientation Program for transport

operators and taxi drivers with a view to motivate them to enhance their

professionalism and make them realize the importance of their relationship

with the tourists.

The government has now declared that it will start working to make Sikkim as

the” Total Organic State”. A sub-committee of the Sikkim State Planning

Commission has prepared a road map to achieve this goal.

A Task Force on Environment headed by Director of the Centre for Science

and Environment has been appointed. This Task Force will not only critically

evaluate the actions taken by the Government on the environmental front but

would also provide a road map for the sustainable development project in the

State.

State’s forest cover has increased from 42.3 % in 1991 to 45.97 % in 2005-06.

Adoption and enforcement of the Forest, Environment, and Wildlife Policy in

1999 has been ensured. This has been a very significant step taken to protect

its environment and conserve forests and wildlife. Sikkim is perhaps the first

State in the country to adopt this all encompassing policy.

“Smriti Van (SV)” or Memorial Forest concept by the Chief Minister, Pawan

Chamling has been a grand success. “Smriti Vans” are located at various

places of social, religious, and other important areas as a part of Green Sikkim

effort by involving all segments of the society. People from all walks of life

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responded to his call with great enthusiasm. Under this program, social,

religious, educational institutions, defense, police, tourism, NGOs and

Government agencies have voluntarily come forward and undertook initiative

for plantations in different parts of the State in memory (smriti) of their near

and dear ones.

Grazing for domestic and semi-domestic animals in reserve forest areas has

been restricted in many places of the State, even at political risk.

Ban on the use of non-biodegradable products like plastic bags to protect the

environment has increased but expected to receive threats from increased

tourism related activities. Landscape and other beautification of numerous

parks, gardens and other aspects of urban areas including those of tourist

importance have been carried out throughout the State for the purpose of

aesthetic and recreation as well as for education and awareness.

The State Government safeguarded the religious-cultural interest of the people

by scrapping the proposed Rathong-chu Hydel Power Project.

Protection of cultural ecology of the Mount Kanchenjunga by banning

climbing expeditions to this revered mountain.

Closing down of shooting range in the fragile region of North district

The State Government has launched the Green Mission which invited and

encouraged people to plant trees on the roads, vacant lands, nearby gardens

etc. to plant trees and other foliages. People have overwhelmingly responded

to these missions. This also covers urban areas of all four districts where in

planting of ornamental trees and bushes were undertaken with a view to both

enhance scenic beauty and check soil erosion and landslides.

State’s forest cover has increased from 42.3 % in 1991 to 45.97 % in 2005-06.

This is a major achievement. In order to deal with the issues related to the

intellectual property rights, the Intellectual Patent Committee and State

Intellectual Law Committee under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister has

been set up.

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Specifically for eco-tourism development in the State following initiatives are

being completed during the 10th Plan period.

Rock Garden at Changaon, Namchi, South Sikkim,

Eco-tourism Park at Rapdentse, Gyalshing, West Sikkim,

Creation of Jureli Dara Park, Sombaria, West Sikkim

Kumrek Picnic Spot, Rangpo, East Sikkim

Forest House at Sombaria, West Sikkim

Inspection hut at Phurchachu, Reshi, West Sikkim

Himalayan Zoological Park

Besides emphasizing on Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT), the State government has

been consistently trying to create a spirit of Private-Public Partnership while

developing and promoting tourism in the State. Its mission has been to take

create friendly atmosphere for tourists, develop human resources, and create

synergy among all players of tourism like government, local administration,

local people, media, private developers and operators of facilities, tourists and

NGOs. The abiding principle is to regulate tourism so that the negative social,

economic, and environmental impacts are minimized.

Sikkim has taken up aggressive marketing strategy in India and abroad to

promote Sikkim as a brand name and the ‘Ultimate Eco Tourism Destination’.

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4.5 Importance of Environment Analysis and Its Future

Implications

‘Think global and act local’ is a broad motto put forward by the several

environmental movements in the world. It implies that there are many transnational

environmental problems at the local or regional level, requiring cooperation between

states and secondly, there are large-scale problems that require local solutions based

on the decentralized actions of many. All these are equally true for Sikkim and it has

been empirically tested by a field survey at three different places viz. Gangtok,

Namchi and Mangan. The six broad areas or factors of tourism environment of

Sikkim viz. importance of guest-host relationship, need for outside investment for

tourism development, level and effectiveness of tourism legislation, type of tourists

and its compatibility, extent of alternative approaches taken by the government to

utilize tourism as a community development tool, extent of sustainable practices

followed in destination management were addressed in the survey with a five point

scale for each question. The result clearly shown the inconsistency and there by a

regional disparity in this regard. As a part of this result, the impact assessment

program for tourism should consider all the six statements and related disparities.

These statements or questions were essentially asked to assess the prior reactions of

the local people. A process of environmental planning to protect environment of

Sikkim needs to be initiated with the existing projects and programs. Based on an

impact assessment and other important documents showing the ecological, economic,

social and political future impacts, a Code of Ethics needs to be prepared for the State

and this Code of Ethics for tourism in the state will ultimately signify the legislation

for tourism in Sikkim. Following is the document covering the areas of future

tourism legislation for Sikkim.

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Exhibit 4.4: Sustainability Issues Relevant for Sikkim

Illicit Felling

Wildlife Poaching including NTPC and Medicinal Plants

Biopiracy

Poaching incidences by Assam Rifles and GREF

Lack of Awareness

Plantation in private lands

Firewood and fodder demand

Increasing demand for medicinal plants

Demand for wild edibles (ferns, nettles, roots, tubers fruits, flowers etc.)

Landslide control

Requirement of seedlings

Alternative energy

Requirement of LPG

Requirement for biogas

Livelihood issues

Ecotourism enterprise

Lack of capacity

Lack of publicity

Improvement of trekking trails

Agriculture and horticulture development

Decline in soil fertility

Requirement for food preservation and processing technologies

Increased introduction of exotic/ hybrid flora for commercial purposes; No

state level gen bank

Animal husbandry initiatives

Husbandry of high yielding livestock (local and exotic/ hybrid)

Decline in yak breeds

Decline in indigenous sheep varieties

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Mules for army and tourists, employment potential, especially during road

blocks

Improvement of existing breed of livestock for more meat, milk, etc. to

decrease the existing pressure on forests

Need for better marketing of milk products from temperate and trans-

Himalayas where yak, goat, sheep and cow population occurs

Lack of cheese processing plant in livestock dominated areas of trans-

Himalayas

Micro enterprise development

Revival/ protection of indigenous handicrafts and handloom

Infrastructure development

Communication problems, damage to environment in trans-Himalayas

Essential services

Health issues in remote areas encompassing nutritive foods including

traditional diet, medicinal plants conserving the use, traditional medicinal

systems, diverse agricultural produce, foods, from the wild

Improvement of drinking water source

Cultural and traditional knowledge conservation

Reduction of vehicular emissions

Efficient garbage management

Biodiversity conservation Source : Sikkim Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

Based on the above issues and other issues of sustainable development hypothetical

steps can be considered for the strategic implementation of tourism legislation

contributing to the sustainable tourism development. The environmental planning

should promote, support and help to raise funds for conservation and polluter-pays-

principle ( PPP) should be one of the important avenues therein. It should be based on

the rules and regulations of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, and other

international/ national/ state level organizations like International Ecotourism Society

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(IES), Himalayan Environmental Trust( HET), Indian River Runners Association

(IRRA), Himalayan Tourism Board (HTB), Travel Agents Association of

Sikkim( TAAS), Sikkim Association of Adventure Tour Operators( SAATO) etc. and

have proper coordination with the public sector and private sectors. All these

planning issues should consider that over 81% of the total geographical area under the

administrative managerial control of the Ministry of Environment and Forest,

Government of India. Over 45% of the total geographical area of the state is under

tree cover and nearly 34% of the geographical area is set aside as protected area

network in the form of national park and wildlife sanctuary. Greater cooperation/

coordination/ integration and collaboration should be established between Sikkim

Tourism Development Corporation (STDC) and all industrial representatives e.g.

TAAS, SAATO etc. or giant industry houses like Reliance, Hyatt etc. Cooperation

should also be extended with registered NGOs and Eco-clubs in the matter of

alternative tourism development and community benefits. Funds to be raised from

institutionalized form of tourism and other related informal and subsidiary sectors in

Sikkim on the basis of polluter-pays principles ( PPP) and a major chunk of collection

to be spent for the adoption and promotion of ( point wise and targeted) sustainable

practices already derived from the process ( Step one) of environmental planning.

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4.6 ConclusionDestination environment analysis of Sikkim essentially dealt with conventional

models and literature with a distinct orientation of tourism and its relationship with

the bio-geography, geology and ecology. The scope for sustainable development

philosophy and its inclusion in existing tourism practices in Sikkim is a complex

process. The tendency to support through review of literature and consideration of

maximum possible key areas of concern are strategically sought to a respectable

number is inter-conflicting through inter-linkages. From the destination specific

environmental analysis, concerned areas are found out, screened and sorted out.

Again the sorting process has interrelated and interdependent limiting factors.

Destination environmental analysis has essentially forecasted consequent changes

also. In doing so, various phases of development and related environmental issues

have been addressed several times. The present environmental analysis is supportive

to the reactive as well as proactive tourism development of destinations at various

phases in the State. At the time of sorting out viable key issues of sustainable

development, the differences and similarities of sustainable development and

sustainable tourism development have been taken into note of as the scope, range and

depth of sustainable tourism development vary. This analysis is also supportive to the

inception of generic environmental impact assessment ( EIA) and capacity building

(CB) program for tourism in Sikkim.

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chapter iv- environment analysis and destination...

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