Chapter ill

A Critique of Al-ghazzali’s Philosophy of life

Al-ghazzali’s Environment and Legacy

With the study of the growth, in the previous chapter, of the Islamic concept of knowledge, the situation is conducive to discuss and analyse the philosophy and educational perspective of the two intellectual luminaries-lmam Abu'‘Hamid Al - ghazzali and Allama Muhammad Iqbal.Infact,ideas of both these gigantic personalities is primarly rooted in two fundamentals sources of Islamic philosophy- the Quran and Sunnah.

Al-Ghazzali merits as an original Islamic thinker, a versatile genius. Infact, the versatility of his genius stimulates human imagination from centuries continuously. This great visionary was born in 450 A.H. (1058 A.D) in the village Taberan in the district of Tus Khurasan,1 and died at the age of fifty-five in the year 505 A.H.(1111 A.D) at the same place2.Abu Hamid Mohammad ibn Muhammad received familarity as Al-ghazzali3 He is surnamed as Hujjatul Islam or Islam’s convincing proof and his dynastic title is Ghazzali5 and Latin name is Algazel6.Tus the native place of Al-ghazzali is today little more than a village, but is well known for its association with the famous Persian poet Firdousi who died in 1020 A.D.7

Ghazzali’s father though, himself was an illiterate person, but appears have been remarkably careful of his son’s education.8 Al-ghazzali’s age was six years when his father died, 9 but in his lifetime he entrusted his two sons, that is Al- Ghazzali and His brother Ahmad to the care of Abu-Hamid Ibn Muhammad Razkani 10 The arrangements for their education were made nicely by the sufi friend of Al-ghazzali’s father, till the money left by their father was spent up 11 Both brothers afterwards continued their studies rather in a very difficult financial compulsion 12. The Sufi friend of their father made arrangements for them to go a madrasa where they could receive free boarding, lodging as well as instructions. Imam Ghazzali recollects:

“Our teacher with whom we had lived before, turned us out of his door and, we did not like to ^ a source o f burden, so we left his house. Disappointed and disheartened we had to leave our hearth

and home and went to a college to learn jurisprudence so that we might gain our livelihood”. 13

While still a boy, Al-ghazzali began the study of theology and canon first in his native village under Sheikh Ahmad-lbn- Mohammad Al-Razkani al Tusi and then at Jurjan under the Imam Abu Nasrul Ismaili. 14 Imam Ghazzali used to take notes of his teachers lectures punctually but once during the journey of Jurjan he was robbed of these notes by dacoits along with his other belongings. He took courage and requested the chief of the dacoits for the notes only to be returned. Dacoit laughed at him and said ,”y °u have learned nothing” and returned the notes. 15 After this episode Al-ghazzali used to assimilate contents of all the lectures of his teachers.16 He concentrated so curiously that his memory had become so prodigious now that he could repeat from his memory whatever he learnt in the books without making any mistake17

Thereafter he went to Nishapore and joined Madrasa Nazimia which was a reputed seat of learning and great educationist namely Imamul Harmain was its principal. Imamul Harmain was a shafite doctor, and his name was Abdul Malik, surnamed Zia-ud-din (Splendor of religion) and generally is known by the title of the Imamul Harmain 18. Al-ghazzali took very intensive interest in> studies; he learnt all available knowledge from his teacher. Among four hundred students of Imamul Harmain Al-ghazzali surpassed them all through his intellectual calibre.19 Even Imamul Harmain accepted his intellectual integrity. An important event confirms the Al- ghazzali’s tremendous learning strides:

When Al-Ghazzali wrote his book Mankul and presented it to his teacher for his opinion about the work, Imamul Harmain exclaimed with grief, when he read it thoroughly “Alas! You have eclipsed my fame as a writer to such an extent that I feel as if I were dead 20”. But it was admitted by all his contemporary scholars that Imamul Harmain was an erudite scholar in jurisprudence, theology, philosophy etc. His erudite scholarship spread to the whole Muslim world and his fatwas were the final word for the learned 21. On the demise of his favourite teacher Imamul Harmain,,was much grieved *eft

Nishapore22 and went to Baghdad 23 He was then a young man of 28 years of age 24. At Baghdad he met with a highly honourable reception from the Nizam-ul-Mulk, the chief advisor of Turkish ruler Malik Shah 25. Nizam-UI-Mulk’s assembly was the alighting place of the learned and destination of the leading divines and savants, learned scholars and brilliant canonists. Polemical discussions were very common and great scholars of this science were engaged in debating . Al-ghazzali was accorded a coveted place in his court. But Ghazzali proved that he had no match for his genius 21. At Baghdad his intellectual brilliance impressed reputed scholars and acquired a reputation which spread to distant places 28. Al-ghazzali’s friend Allama Abdul al-Farsi, Khatib of Nishapore described Al-ghazzali’s alike high reverence among noble and plebian as:

“His fame has burst like the uncontrollable light of tropical sun on a mid summer dawn. The world is dazzled by it” 29.

He was appointed principal of the most prestigious educational institution Madrasa Nizamia of Baghdad at the age of thirty four by Nizamul Muluk.30 At the time of this appointment he had authored about seventy books and treatises on various subjects.31. He remained the head of the Madrasa for four years '(484/1091-488/1095). 32 Ghazzali lectured with great success in Jurisprudence, and Theology to an audience of often over three hundred students 33. Apart from delivering lectures in the Madrasa, he used to give sermons replete with scholarly insights. Sheikh Syed Ibn-al- Faris, known generally as Ibn-al-Luban compiled 183 sermons, which were revised afterwords by Ghazzali himself and latter published under the title of Majalis-al-Gazzalia 34 Ghazzali left a good number of students of high repute. Abu Abdullah Tumart al-Mehidi who laid the foundations of great kingdom at Spain was also the student of Al-ghazzali35. Other famous student’s of Al-ghazzali were the following:

1. Qazi Abu Nasr Ahmad Ibn Abdullah (d.A.H.544).2. Abdul Fath Ahmad Ibn Ali (d.A.H.518).3. Abu Mansur Mohammad Ibn Ismail al- Attari

(d.A.H.573).4. Abu Syed Mohammad Ibn Assad al -Shuqani

(d.A.H 554).

5. Abu Abdullah Tumart al-Mehdi,6. Abu Hamid Mohammad Ibn Abdul Malik7. Abu Syed Mohammad Ibn Ali Kurdi.8. Imam Abu Syed Mohammad Ibn Yahya Nishapori

(d.A.H. 548).9. Abu Tahir Imam Ibrahim (d.A.H.513).10 Abu Talib Abdul Karim Razi (d.A.H. 528).11Abul Hassan Ali Ibn Muther Deenwari (d.A.H. 537)

It is reported that the height of his splendor, he renounced all pomp and power and engaged himself to ponder over realities of life, to seek eternal tranquillity 37. He set out for Hijaz in 1095 A.D and journeyed to Damascus and stayed there for ten years. He composed their several books of which Ihya'ul-uloom is said to be one 38. He returned to his home at Tus where he founded an educational institution for training and preparing scholars. 39

The important contemporaries of Al-ghazzali were, e.g. .Hujwili (d 1062 A.D.), Shahrastani (d 1153 A.D.), Ragib Isfahani (d 1008 A.D.), Ibn Tumart (d. 1128 A.D), Hassan Sabbah (d. 1124 A.D), Umar Khayyam (d. 1121 A.D.), Nizamal- Muluk (d. 1092 A.D), Nasir Khusraw (d. 1088 A.D.), Hariri (d. 1122 A.D.), 40 Sheikh Syed Abdul Qadir Jeelani (d. 1166 A.D), etc.41

Al-Ghazzali lived 55 years of rich eventful life. He proved a voluminous writer and wrote intensively. His books are standard works on Tafsir, Hadith, Theology, Philosophy, Logic, Divinity, Mysticism, Metaphysics, Jurisprudence and other sciences. The most important works are as follows:

1. Ihya’ul ulum alddin (Revivification of the science of Religion).

2. Kimya-i-sa’dat (Alchemy of Happiness).3. Al-Munkidh min addalal (Deliverance from Error).4. Tahafutal-Falasifah (Collapse of Philosophers).5. Mizan-al-Amal (A treatise on logic).6. Alwajiz (Learning on theology).7. Miyar-al llm (On logic).8. Maqasid al-Falasifah (on logic and Metaphysics).

9. Makatib al Ghazzali (Letters of Al-ghazzali).10.Miskhat-al-Anwar (A niche for Lights).11.AI-Mankul (on Muslim scholasticism)42

Ihya’ul ulum is his famous work, a masterpiece which made Ghazzali immortal. Ihya is considered as the greatest work on Islamic sciences and stands out as a classic on itself. Imam Nawawi commentator on Sahih Muslim writes:

“Nothing like this was written before and nothing like this would be produced afterwards’’,43

Nucleus of Al-ghazzali’s Philosophy

As the core of Al-ghazzali’s philosophy, his concept of God, universe and man, has evolved his own methods and traditions in philosophy. Interestingly, being a critic of Greek philosophy, he himself assumed a status of a philosopher especially when he might have employed the various ways and methods for strengthening his sound thought. Al-ghazzali’s philosophical treatises, Al-munqidh-min-addalal, Maqasid-al-falasafah, Tahafat-ul -falasafa etc, stands testimony to the fact. In the proceeding pages we will concentrate mainly on some important credentials of Al-ghazzali’s philosophy.Al-Ghazzali’s philosophy is called as “Spiritual Critique” in the modern terminology. 44 Al-gbazzali was by nature an adventurer and inquisitive from the very inception and endowed with an intense desire for truth. So he initiated his philosophical experience by doubting inherited beliefs. Al-ghazzali’s autobiographical treatise “Al munqidh-min-ad-dalal” or“Deliverance from Error” acquaints us with all the dimensions of the subject. He writes:

“From my early youth, since I attained the age of puberty before I was twenty; until the present time I was over fifty, I have ever recklessly launched out in to the midst o f these ocean depths, I have ever bravely embarked on this open sea, throwing aside all craven caution; I have poked into every dark recess, I have made an assault on every problem, I have plunged into every abyss, and have scrutinized the creed of every sect, I have tried to lay bare the inmost

doctrines of every community. All this have I done that I might distinguish between true and false, between sound traditions and heretical innovation .whenever I meet one o f the Batiniyah,I like to study his creed; whenever I meet one of the Zahiriyah, I want to know the essentials o f his belief. If it is a philosopher, I try to become acquainted with the essence of his philosophy; if a scholastic theologian I busy myself inexamining his theological reasoning; if a Sufi, Iyearn to fathom the secret o f his mysticism; if an ascetic (muta’abbid), I investigate the basis of his ascetic practices; if one of the Zanadiqah or Mu’attilah, I took beneath the surface to discover the reason for bold adoption o f such a creed". 45

Al-ghazzali held the view that even the common people at large were victims of philosophic convictions and theirindulgence in mere speculations had shaken their faith inestablished Islamic values. He describes the situation as:

“When I looked round, I found that faith o f the people has been shaken owing to the influence of the philosophers, ignorance of the mystics, inertness of the religious doctors and the weak disheartened vindication of the religion by the dialecticians. People were losing their conviction and although some, overborne by philosophy, still fulfilled the religious obligation, they had hardly any conviction of faith left in their hearts”. 46

Infact, it was very trying and critical situation when literal interpretations including philosophical and allegorical about various matters of Islamic faith had generated multiple worries and confusion among people. Imam Ghazzali at this juncture contributed his intellectual integrity as an original, creative thinker. In his Tahafa-tul-falsafa, he centered his thought on the inconsistencies in the approach of the philosophers whom proclaims Al-ghazzali failed to reach any concrete conclusion.47 Al-ghazzali propeled his conclusions about philosophical sciences in his significant study ‘Al-munqidh-min-addalal’

(deliverance from Error). He classifies philosophical sciences six in number, i.e. (1) mathematics, (2) logic, (3) natural sciences, (4) theology ormetaphysics, (5) politics, (6) eithics.48 Noted Ghazzalian thinker W.Montegomery Watt, explores the innovative approach of Al-ghazzali that among the problems which Al-ghazzali had to tackle was the problems of correct attitude towards the Greek philosophy and science.49 In his mode of presentation of issues, he was very careful in stating things that is why he reminds us that he is not going to affirm what he considers to be truth.50

Al-ghazzali in his ideas accepted the findings of mathematics, science and logic and employed the tools of Aristotelianism against the Greek philosophy, mainly its version as advocated by Ibn-i-Sina and Al-Farabi.51 Al-ghazzali argued against the philosophers position with regard to religious doctrine in a methodical way and revealed both its self- contradictions and its insufficiency from the religious and philosophical point of view.52 Al-ghazzali’s method of doubt which was debated very widely has remarkably surfaced various dimensions, which are inherent in his treatment of various subjects, like reason, skepticism, causation etc. He has taken philosophical subjects in a systematic manner, and, thereby has been compared with philosophers like, Kant, Descartes, David Hume and others. One finds a remarkable similarity between him and other philosophers respectively.

Al-ghazzali’s Experience of ‘Doubt’ and ‘Certainty’

So far Al-ghazzali’s philosophical works are concerned, the method of doubt occupies a pivotal position in Al-ghazzali’s epistemology and system of thought, and that in this question, he therefore anticipated Descartes. There is indeed, so much internal evidence of similarity between Al-ghazzali’s, “al- Munqidh” and Descartes, “Discour” that it has led some scholars to say that had any translation of (al-Munqidh) existed in the days of Descartes, everyone would have cried out against the plagiarism.53 As has been mentioned earlier many comparative studies have been made concerning the place and function of a doubt in the philosophies of the two thinkers. But an important distinction which Al-ghazzali gets attributed to his credit. Infact, Descartes too, like Al-ghazzali, started with doubt,

disbelieving his senses, distrusting knowledge through experience but stopped at reason, finding certainty in the proposition, “Cogito ergo sum”54 and made this proposition on the basis of whole system of philosophy. Al-ghazzali went further and founded certainty only in the will to believe, inspired by the Divine will, i.e. in the proposition “Volo ergo Sum”.5 The experience of doubt as it reveals from the writings of Al- ghazzali, has become as an integral factor of the epistemology of Islamic intellectual tradition to which Al-ghazzali properly belongs. What is the nature of Ghazzalian doubt? He tells us that his doubt has been generated in the course of his quest for certainty, that is, for knowledge of the reality of things “as they really are"56 This knowledge of the reality of things “as they really are” is what Al-ghazzali calls alimal-yaqin, as sure and certain knowledge which he define as:

“It was plain to me that sure and certain knowledge is that knowledge in which the object is disclosed in such a fashion that no doubt remains along with it, that no possibility o f error or illusion accompanies it and that the mind cannot even entertain such a supposition. Certain knowledge must also be infallible; and this infallibility or secuhty from error is such that no attempt to show the falsity of knowledge can occasion doubt or denial, even though the attempt is made someone who turns stones into gold or a rod into a serpent’’ 57

one important point which is worthful to note is that in the context of Al-ghazzali’s confession that in search of the quest of the reality, God bestowed upon Him the abundant divine generosity58, so, the meaning of this quest should never be lost sight of if we want to understand the nature and significance of Al-ghazzali’s doubt. So, the aforesaid famous prayer of Prophet of Islam related by Al-ghazzali, “grant me the knowledge of the reality of the things”, certainly carries in depth concentration and contemplation. It is considered that sufis have been the most faithful and consistent of the believers in echoing this prayer of Prophet ,59 The towering sufi luninary Maulaqa Jami (d. 1492) had interestingly interpreted this prayer in an eloquent way.

“O God, deliver us from preoccupation with worldly vanities, and show us the nature of things “as they are”. Remove from our eyes the veil o f ignorance, and show us things as they are. Show us not non-existence as existent, nor cost the veil of non-existence over the beauty o f existence.Make this phenomenal world the mirror to reflect the manifestation of Thy beauty, not a veil to separate and repel us from Thee. Cause these unreal phenomena of the Universe to be for us the sources of knowledge and insight, not the causes o f ignorance and blindness. Our alienation and severance from Thy beauty all proceed from ourselves. Deliver us from ourselves, and accord us intimate knowledge of Thee” 60

Al-ghazzali’s quest for certainty as he defined widely, it manifests that there were both internal and external forces at work in fueling that quest to the point o f Al- Ghazzali. These forces, namely, the various intellectual, religious and spiritual currents o f Al-ghazzali’s time, surely engaged his highly reflective and contemplative mind.

It is quite palpable from Al-Munqidh that these various currents were of great concern^to him. One consequence of his critical reflection upon religious phenomenon was that he began to question the inherited religious beliefs, I.e. taqlid. His approach led him to search for the inner reality of human nature, that is, man’s primordial nature (Fitrah). Al-ghazzali himself makes the point clear:

“As I draw near the age of adolescence bonds of mere authority (taqlid) ceased to held me and inherited beliefs lost their grip upon me, for I saw that Christian youths always grew up to the Christians, Jewish youth to be Jews and Muslim youths to be Muslims. I heard, too the Traditions related to the Prophet o f God according to which he said: “Every one is bom with a sound nature; it is his parents who make him a Jew or Christian or a Magi an”. My inermost

being was moved to discover what his original nature really was and what the beliefs derived from the authority o f parents and teachers really were”. 61

But obviously, it reveals from the ideas of Al-ghazzali that he was not against all the manifestations of the Taqlid as such. He never advocated at any time for its total abandonment. Infact, he considered it necessary for the common believer whose minds are free of the kind of intellectual curiosity one finds in philosophers and scientist and who are therefore content to accept things based on the authority of experts62. He elaborates his view points as:

“ The root o f faith o f the ordinary people is Taqlid or behind belief in authority. True it is that belief which is based on authority is not free fromweakness, but when it is sure and certain, itbecomes perfect. To achieve this end one should not resort to scholastic theology but to reading the Quran, Tafsir and Hadis and to understand their meaning”. 63

Al-ghazzali’s criticism of taqlid must be seen in the background of his experience of doubt and thereby his quest for the highest level of certainty. It is significant to know that while confronting the issues of doubt, Al-ghazzali was never at time a religious sceptic. He tells 'us in his book Al-Munqidh thatthrough out his quest for certainty, he always had anunshakable belief in the three fundamentals of Islamic faith:

“From the Sciences I had laboured at and the path I had traversed in my investigation of revelational and rational sciences (theology and philosophy). These had come to me a sure faith in God most high, in Prophethood (or revelation) and in the last day. These three credal principtQ were firmly rooted in my being, not through any carefully argued proof, but by reason of various causes, coincidences and experiences which are not capable of being stated in detail• ” 64

The above mentioned statement can help us to

understand unambiguously Al-ghazzali’s philosophy of life. It provides us valuable evidence that Al-ghazzali’s skepticism encountered in western philosophy. The doubting mind of Al- ghazzali was never cut off from the revelation and divine guidance and in the pursuit of its directionless activity, it has turned against faith itself. Consequently, modern philosophies of education, and obviously do not satisfy human mind completely.

Levels of certainty

Al-Ghazzali’s state of doubt adjudicates philosophies of life in a way that he finds the idea of certainty in Islamic gnosis. There are three levels of certainty (Yagin) in the terminology of the Quran. These are ‘Ilm-al-Yaqin (science of certainty), ‘aynal-yaqin’66 (vision of certainty), and ‘haqq al Yaqin, 67 (Truth of certainty).

To study the Al-ghazzali’s quest for certainty, he refers to Ilm-al-Yaqin. Since his acceptance of the truth concerned was inferential in nature based primarily upon the revelation and the authority of Prophet. Thus, from the beginning of Al-ghazzali’s quest for the true knowledge of Real, a certain element of certitude was always present. In the Kitab al ilm (Book of Knowledge) of his magnum opus, Ihya ulum ad-din, Al-ghazzali discussed the usage the term Yaqin by major intellectual schools of Islam up to his time. For the realization of certainty, Al-ghazzali has involved two kinds of knowledge, llamal Mu’amala and Ilmal-Mukashifa. 68 The former consists in the knowledge and the cultivation of outer and inner virtues, and in the eradication of outer and inner vices. There is no limit to the development of virtues in us. 69 Ilmal-Mukashifa (intuitive knowledge) is the outcome of Ilm-al-Mu’amala. It is the ultimate and in the world of leading to perfect love of God here and to the realization of His vision in the next. One who possesses the strongest love will be the most successful in the next world*70 But Al-ghazzali genuinely establishes c condition for the accessibility of Reality; that knowledge of God can only enter in pure heart, that is a heart which after being purged of the vices, has adorned itself with good qualities, in other words, which has

completely emancipated from the love of this world. It is then good conduct (al’aml al-salih) which leads to the knowledge of God and is subservient to i t .71

Al-Ghazzali himself confronted same spiritual crises which he analyses that he lost completely his capacity to make a choice, God delivers him from the crises of making it easy for his heart to turn away from the attraction of the world. 72 In the spiritual path of the Sufi’s Al-ghazzali found the light of certainty that he has tirelessly sought from the beginning of his intellectual awareness of what that certainty is. He comes to conclusion that “Sufi’s were masters of states (arbab-al-ahwal) and not purveyors of words (ashab-al-aqwal)”. He also comes to realize that there was great difference between theoretical and realized knowledge. It is therefore, in the light of Islamic epistemology and especially in the light of the ideas of degrees of certainty (yaqin) Islamic gnosis that Ghazzalian experience of doubt should be studied and understood.

Al-Ghazzali‘s Exposition of contemporary Religious and Philosophical sects

Al-ghazzali mentions that when he emerged from the state of doubt, he proceeded to study with the greater thoroughness the views and methods of all the prevailing beliefs and seekers of the truth. He devided them into four groups:73

1. “The Theologians (mutakallimum) who claims that they are exponents of thought and intellectual speculations;

2. The Batiniyah, who consider that they, as the party of 'authoritative instructions’ (Ta’lim), alone derive truth from the infallible Imam;

3. The philosophers, who regard themselves as the exponents o f logic and demonstrations;

4. The Sufi’s and mystics who clnim that they alone enter into the presence of the Divine presence and Dossess vision and intuitive understanding”. 1

The scholastic theologians claimed that they were the masters of theory and speculation that is, the people who were guided by judgment and discussions. 75. Al-ghazzali says that theologians defended orthodoxy plainly on the basis of taqlid and rectified heretical innovations.76 They did not approach the question thoroughly, consequently, thereby did not reach any concrete conclusion. 77 The theologians were therefore, disappointing to him, though he does not deny that results of their efforts have been sufficient for others. He tersely remarks:

“My purpose here, however,is to describe my own case, not to disparage those who sought a remedy thereby, for the healing drugs vary the disease. How often one sick man's medicines proves to be another’s p o is o n 78

Maulana Shibli has dealt with this issue at length in his book “Al-ghazzali”. According to him amongst the Muslim public, the majority held the view that there are no hidden meanings behind what is stated in Shariah and any attempt to go behind the obvious is not permissible. The other group differed on the basis of the Quranic injuctions and the call to think, ponder and find the mysteries. But they also held in response to Hazrat Ali’s directive quoted in ‘Sahih Bukhari’:

“Explain things which the people can grasp and leave out those which they cannot understand " 79

Imam Ghazzali belonged to the group that wished to go deeper and satisfy the inner carvings of an intellectual Muslim. According to Shibli at the conclusion of his treatise, “Aljam-ul- Awan”, Al-ghazzali advises that every thing suits its own suitable place, as Allah has directed his apostle in the Quran,

“Call into the way of your Lord with wisdom and good exhortation and reason with them in the best way. Lo: Your Lord best knows who go astray from his path and He knows best those who are rightly guided”. 80

As was his ingrained aptitude Al-ghazzali macj^ p specific study of the Greek philosophy and their Muslim commentators of whom he concentrated on two personalities. I.e. Al-Farabi

and Ibn-Sina. 81To classify his own ideas he first wrote ‘Maqasid-al-Falasa’ (The aims of the philosophers). This book became a classic for the west. 82 With the development of confidence in this subject he presented his another book ‘Tahafat-ul-falasa’ (The Incoherence of philosophers). In its introduction he states:

“/ have observed that there is a class of men who believe in their superiority to others because of their greater intelligence and insight. They have abandoned all the religious duties Islam enjoins”. 83

Al-ghazzali made a decree of blasphemy against philosophers on three issues i.e. eternity of God, knowledge of particulars, and denial of resurrection of bodies84 Though Al-ghazzali condemned the philosophers, but Infact, Tahafat-al-falasafah makes him to be included among the great philosophers, like Descartes, who employed a method of doubt before reaching finally to certainty or Hume who derived the origin of Causation.85

In his important treatise Al-Munqidh, Al-ghazzali classified philosophers in three groups: The Materialists (Dehriyun) The Naturalists (Tabiyun), and The Theists (llahiyun).86 The first group, deny the Creator and Disposer of the world and consider that the world has everlastingly existed just as it is, of itself without a Creator.87 The second group believed in the Creator, but not life after death, so they denied Resurrection, Punishment and Reward, Heaven and Hell, etc.88 The third group is the Theists, such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and their followers, like Ibn-sina and Al-farabi, whome he regarded as the best exponents of Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotelian philosophy.89 Al-ghazzali states:

“Aristotle, more ever, attacked his predecessors, among the Theistic philosophers, especially Plato and Socrates, and went so far in his criticism th$it he separated himself from them all. Yet he too retain a residue of their unbelief and heresy” 90

This obviously manifests Al-ghazzali’s innovative approach towards philosophy and his scholarly imminence;

created an atmosphere of healthy and positive dialogue between the Islamic theology and philosophy. In the words of Montgomery Watt:

uln all this Al-ghazzali was the pioneer. He alone made that combined study of philosophy and theology that was necessary if the tension was to be resolved” 91

Al-ghazzali displayed analytical insight in his discussion about the classification of philosophical sciences. He accepts the positive elements found in each science, explains its scope and validity, however, at the sometime, he elaborates the inherent contradictions, lurking implications and negative dimensions of each science. His analysis depicts originality of thought with creativity orientation.

When Al-Ghazzali finished with philosophy, he turned his attention to the third group, the Batinites, or Ta’limites, who had captured the minds of the people with their doctrine of infallible teacher.92 They held that such a teacher existed. This school of thought according to Al-ghazzali they in particular denied that there is need of “authoritative instruction” (Ta’lim) and an instructor (mu’allim) and their claim that not every instructor is adequate, there must be an infallible instructor. Al-ghazzali holds the view that their ideas were little or no consequence, and it was only the ignorant defenders of Islam that had made so much of them.94 Al-ghazzali maintains:

"The correct procedure is Infact to acknowledge the need of an instructor and the necessity o f his being infallible. But our infallible instructor is Muhammad (PBUH)” 95

Finally, Al-ghazzali concentrated his extensive study about the nature of mystical experience, and linked it with his of two fold approaches, i.e. (1) intellectual belief, (2) and practical activity.96 In his own mystical experience, Al-ghazzali got confronted with an memorable event; when he was in the prime of his life - 37 years, old, when he gave up the worldly position, possessions and honours to satisfy the instinct of other worldiness.97 For this purpose he studied the ideas of mystic ‘

personalities, abu talib al-Makki, a! Junaid, ash-Shibli and abu yazid al Bistami.98 Al-ghazzali concluded his contemplation as:

"I thus comprehended their fundamental teachings on the intellectual side, and progressed as far as is possible by study and oral instruction, in the knowledge of mysticism. It became clear to me, however, that what is most distinctive of mysticism is something which cannot be apprehended by study, but only by immediate

n QQexperience

He further elaborates his viewpoint:

“/ learnt with certainty that it is above all the mystics who walk on the road o f God; their life is the best life, their method the soundest method, their character the purest character; indeed were the intellect of the intellectuals and the learning of the learned and scholarship of the scholars, who are versed in the profundities o f revealed truth, brought together in the attempt to improve the life and character o f the mystics, they would find no way of doing so; for to the mystics all movements and all rest, whether external or internal, brings illumination; and behind the light o f Prophetic revelation there is no other light on the face of the earth from which illumination may be received”.100

Al-ghazzali’s conception of Human Nature

The Holy Quran as a primary source of Islamic philosophy explains in detail the nature of man in multiple ways, “verily we have created man ‘fi Ahsaun-i-Taqwim’ 101 (in the best of moulds). In the Quranic context God has linked the term Taqwim’ with ‘Qayyim’ the adjective used for the true faith. Verily this is ‘Din al- Qayyim’ 102 (the straight path). The Quran also reveals the stages of the development and perfection of human nature as it passed through the hands of the Creator. So man is by nature capable and potential enough, because God taught him the names (al-asma) of everything. 103 He has been specially blessed with power of discernment, knowledge of evil and good (Fajuraha wa Taqwaha). 104 Al-ghazzali is

convinced that Aql (intelligence or reason) is one of the supreme grace of man and counts it among the greatest gifts that have been bestowed upon man by God. 105 For Him man has the body and the soul and both have to be nourished. 106. As the body of each man has its own form and shape so does the soul. A man is called handsome if his body is well proportionated and pleasing to the eye. Similarly, his soul has an inner shape of its own and according to its perfection or imperfection man is called noble, naughty or coward e tc.107

According to Al-ghazzali, “there are four natures of man- (1) beastly nature, (2) animal nature, (3) devilish nature, and (4) angelic nature”. 108 Anger is the sign of beastly nature. 109 If he obeys the dictates of anger he acquires the odious conduct such as haughtiness, pride, cruelty and passion for power and self-praise.11 If the devilish nature gets the upper hand he becomes prone to lowly traits of deceit, deception, treachery, fraud etc,. 111when he controls these evil tendencies and cultivates and nourishes his angelic qualities he is endowed with divine qualities such as wisdom, knowledge, faith and love for humanity.112

Soul is like the mirror in which the evil and the virtues mentioned are reflected. 113 so, it becomes necessary to understand heart. Al-ghazzali emphasis that through a simple method understanding of heart is possible:

“And this method is one through which man may understand the existence o f God through his own existence, understand the qualities o f God through his own qualities, and from the authority and control that he has upon his own body and limbs, he can understand the control that God has upon the entire universe".114

Al-ghazzali elaborates that understanding of self (nafas) is the key to the understanding of gnosis of actions (mu’rafat-i-

af aal). 115 Al-ghazzali says that there is a continuous conflict between the intellect and the animal natu e. The animal nature revolts against the intellect and try to overcome it. The intellect because of the divine element in it fight these forces and try to control and divert them to right path. If the intellect succeeds in

making them completely submissive to itself, then man achieves the state of abstinence and piety.116

Al-ghazzali believes that every thing in the world is the creation of the God with a specific objective. Having an elevated and dignified position; man is duty bound to perform a relevant role, through the qualities inherent in him.117 But he has to upheld the very fundamental obligation; to develop and promote all those qualities which facilitate his moral progress and subjugate those which hinder it. The former are called by Al-ghazzali ‘Munjiyat’ (The redeeming qualities) or al-Fadial (virtues), and the later are terms as ‘Muhilakat’ (the destructive qualities) or ar-Radha’il(vices).118 In order to achieve the moral end, one has to build a good character which comprises all the virtues, the most of important of which is love of God.119

Al-ghazzali gives an exposition of the qualities, i.e. of virtues and vices which makes or mar character. He says that man has two forms, Khalq (the physical form) and Khuluq (the spiritual form).120 Khulq is the spiritual constitution of man, his natural self from which actions proceed spontaneously and easily.121 The fundamental elements of inner constitution of man are reason or wisdom (Aql or Hikmah), self-assertion (Ghadab), and a petition (Shahwa).122 To farm beautiful character these elements must work together in harmony, observing the golden mean, each being in the correct proposition.123 The inner-action of intellect, self-assertion and appetition produces vertues, and vices accordingly.124 Wisdom is manifested in the following virtues:(1)Husn at-tadbir (administer ability), (2) fawdat adh-Dhihan (acute-mindedness), (3) naqayat ar~Ra’e (clearness of vision), (4) Sawah az-Zann (Shrewdness).125

Al-ghazzali on Psychological Nature of Man

As a prolific writer and versatile genius, Al-ghazzali in his philosophy of life, eloquently assimilated, introspected and explained the psychological nature of man. His treatises, Ihya, Al-Munqidh, etc. deliberated on this ve ry important subject of educational concern. His authentic argumentation undertakes the objective methodology. He says:

“A man’s conduct speaks more eloquently than his words. ”126

Al-Ghazzali's psychological theory evaluates the nature of man from definite point of view. He associated hispsychological theory with theology and ethics and advocated it necessary for purification of soul and consolidation ofmorality. Modern psychologists also emphasizes a moral development of a child. E. Herlock , in her famous book, “Child Development”, argues that psychological interest in mental development was not only concentrated on discipline but it also attaches prominence of moral development, so that a child can be expected to behave in a socially approved way. She writes:

“Moral behavior is controlled by moral concepts - the rules o f behavior to which the member o f a culture has become accustomed and which determine the expected behavior patterns of all group members. ” 128

Prof. Umeruddin in his book, The Ethical philosophy of Al- ghazzali’ comprehends the Al-ghazzali’s approach topsychological science as”

"Al-ghazzali as a true thinker, sets out to examine the psychological rjature of Man discovers that all psychological phenomena originate in itself. What is the nature of self? What is the ultimate purpose of it? Where lies its misery and happiness? Such were the problems he was called upon tosolve.’*29

The nature of self in Ghazzalian psychological study involves, Qalb (heart), Ruh (soul), Nafs (passion) and Aql (intellect).130 Al-ghazzali gives much importance to Qalb as he affirms it is source of Ruh.131 The prominence of Qalb in human psycho­physiology, illustrates Al-ghazzali as:

“Qalb (heart) is the centre or n ine for circulation of blood. The detailed description of heart is to be found in Anatomy. It exist in breasts and lower animals and appertains to the material world. The second meaning of Qalb is soul with which we

are concerned here. It is an immaterial thing a formless Latifa or subtle element which got connection with the material heart. It is just like unseen electricity. It is the principal thing in a man.”' 32

This very self asserts Al-ghazzali fulfils varied needs of man. Founder of psycho-analytic school of psychology Sigmund Freud (1856-1934) identifies sex instinct as the source of all human behavior and activity. 133 while Al-ghazzali propounds the theory that human behavior is determined by instinct of greed or passion. Greed for food, greed for show supremacy, passion for sex, and passion for wealth have specially mentioned by Al-ghazzali. 134 The Holy Quran declares, “Mon’s souls are swayed by greed.” 135

Noted psychologist Me Dougall defines instinct in the following manner:

"An instinct is an innate disposition which stimulates an organism to perceive an object and to experience in its presence certain emotional excitement and impulse to action which finds expression in a certain mode of behavior in relation to the object. ” 136

>

Thus, according to Me Dougall instinct is an innate mental organization, which activates an individual in a certain situation towards particular direction. Al-ghazzali seeks inspiration from the Quran and Sunnah, while explaining man’s behavioral patterns. It is significant to mention that the instincts, dispositions discerned by psychologists in the modern period were explicitly or implicitly, discussed by the Quran in the Seventh Century. From the references are given below:

“Man is ever niggardly.” 137

“He loves riches with all his heart. ” 138

“Man is prone to avarice. ”139

“Man is very impatient. ” 140

"Man is creature of haste.’’ 141

Al-Ghazzali definite point of view on psychological nature of man directs our attention towards another dimension of the issue; which he interprets in the context of one of the famous traditions of Prophet. Al-ghazzali states:

“The tradition related to the Prophet o f God according to which He said: ‘Everyone is bom with a sound nature; it is his parent who makes him Jew or a Christian or a Magi an’. ” 142

It reveals the very sensitive idea that Al-ghazzali believes that human temperament is instinctively not based upon evil. The human nature can be changed from vice to virtue. Instincts cannot be crushed because they are necessary for the preservation of life. It is unnatural to repress them; otherwise, it would develop psychological complexes. But instincts in Al- ghazzalian thinking, must be controlled, modified and sublimated through viable methods of education and training. Actually, it was primary mission of all Prophets of the God. In this context the Quranic references makes the point unambiguously clear. The Holy Quran praised the Prophet of Islam as having a sublime character (Khaluq’i-Azeem):

“Verily thou art of a sublime character”. 143

The term “sublime” with which the character of Prophet of Islam is credited indicates that in his personality are combined all virtues such as patience, courage, fulfillment of promises and convenants, honesty, justice, magnanimity, kindness to kindred, support of the weak, hospitality to guests and successor to the needy. 144

When psychologists discuss the nature of instincts, emotions etc, simultaneously they concentrate on human development which in an organic form plays a vital role in formation of child’s behavior. Among them motor development is very important. Its development proceeds in an organized manner, general control on the muscles which enables child to have control on all things. Psychologists held the view that the movement of head and eyes, playing with different things,

standing, crawling, walking, running and jumping etc; is closely related to social and intellectual development. 145 Al-ghazzali has also dealt with this aspect of human personality in an impressive way:

“The self fulfills the bodily needs through the motor (Muharrika) and sensory (Mudrika) powers.The motor power comprises propensities (Ba’itha lil_harka) and impulses (Mubashira lil-Harka) or (Qudra). The special types of propensities are appetite for sex (al-Quwwat-ashshawaniya) and a n g e r (a l-Q uw w at al-Ghadabiyya). The former urges the body to strive for and obtain what is good for it. It includes hunger, thirst, sexual craving, etc. The latter urges the body to avoid or repel what is harmful to it. Anger takes various forms like rage, indignation, revenge, etc. Impulse is the power resident in the muscles, nerves and other tissues that moves the organs at the best of appetite and anger. The sensory power (Mudrika) is the power o f apprehension which perceives and takes cognizance o f what is harmful and is good for the body. "146

In his writings, particularly in Ihya, Vol II, Al-ghazzali has described in detail the constitution of mind; its implications on body and subsequently on behavior patterns. He has divided sense formation into two groups; 1) Outer senses called special senses, viz sight, smelt hearing, taste and touch; and 2) the inner senses, viz, common sense, imagination, reflection, recollection and memory.147 According to Al-ghazzali these five senses are located in the brain and they secretly stay there in. 148 Al-ghazzali, like some of modern psychologists, believed in the localization of functions, l.e every mental faculty has a corresponding seat in a region of the brain. 149 Al-ghazzali says that memory is located in the hinder lobe of the brain 150, the power of imagination located in the frontal lobe of the brain 151, and the power of reflection is located in the middle folds of the brain. 152 While the five other senses equip the organism to act in the situations, the five inner senses nelp it to learn from the past experiences and foresee future situations. All these powers control and regulate the body and the Qalb controls and

rules over them. 153 Thus Al-ghazzali holds that mind has supremacy over matter. It is dynamic force which fashions matter according to its own needs.

In Ihya, Vol III, Al-ghazzali touches another dimension of psychological nature of man. He says that appetite, anger and apprehension are common to man and animal. 154 But man is endowed with special qualities which distinguishes him from animal, and enable him to attain spiritual perfection. They have Aql (intellect) and Iradha (will). 1)5 Intellect is the source and fountain head of ‘Urn’ (knowledge). Knowledge is like the fruit of a tree and it flows from intellect. Ilm includes the knowledge of the affairs of this world and the next and the knowledge of rational principles. 157 Ilm can be acquired not through the senses, but only through the intellect. 158 When a man understands the full significance of an object and the desirability of seeking it, a yearning is aroused in him to achieve that object by adopting appropriate means. This yearning is Iradha (will). The will in man is different from the will in animals.159 Al-Ghazzali says that soul of a man is endowed with knowledge and will and not the lower animals. 160 The intellect in man has the divine origin; it is from (ar-Rabbaniyya). Because of this divine element in it, it fights all the negative forces and tries to control and divert them into right channels in order to make them useful to the self. 161 So Al-ghazzali has discussed nature, forms and manifestations of human psychology which determines the behavior of man. He has also indicated the solutions how to come out of various psychological compulsions, which he has visualized from primary sources of Islamic Philosophy- the Quran and Sunnah. 162

Al-Ghazzali’s classification of natures of man; related instincts with associated emotions

Natures of man Instincts Associated

Beastly Nature

Animal Nature Sex Food Seeking

Angeremotions

Haughtiness, hatred rebuke etc.

Lust, shamelessness, other bad habits

Devilish Nature

Angelic Nature

Passion for honor and wealth

Submission

Pride, impiety, ostentation, fraud,

decite Service, self- satisfaction,

patience, silence

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