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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents literatures and theories underlying this study. There

are seven points that will be discussed, they are: (1) vocabulary, (2) vocabulary

mastery, (3) vocabulary test, (4) reading, (5) reading comprehension, (6) reading

test, and (7) the relationship between vocabulary mastery and reading

comprehension.

2.1 Vocabulary

Vocabulary plays an important role in learning English. It is the first

component that should be mastered in learning English. Richard (2001) states that

vocabulary is the first component that should be given attention first. It means,

vocabulary is the first components that should be learnt before the other

components. Without vocabulary, learners cannot learn the other components

such as grammar and pronounciation. More explanation about vocabulary is as

follows:

2.1.1 Definition of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is usally defined as the words of language. Evelyn & Cheryl

(1995) states that “vocabulary is a list or a set of words for a particular language”.

Furthermore, Heibert & Kamil (2005) claim that vocabulary is knowledge of

meanings of words both in oral and written form.

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Based on the definition above, it can be defined that vocabulary is one of

language components and a series of words within language that language users

should be able to understand and express.

2.1.2 Kinds of Vocabulary

To explain more about vocabulary, some kinds of vocabulary are discussed.

According to Lehr, et. al (2001), there are two kinds of vocabulary as follows:

The first is words which come in two forms, oral and print:

1. Oral Vocabulary

Oral vocabulary is the words which are known and used in listening and

speaking.

2. Print Vocabulary

Print vocabulary is the words which are known and used in reading and

writing.

The second is word knowledge which consists of two forms, receptive and

productive:

1. Receptive Vocabulary

Receptive vocabulary is the words which are identified by hearing and

seeing them.

2. Productive Vocabulary

Produvtive vocabulary is the words which are identified by speaking or

writing.

In short, oral vocabulary and print vocabulary is the division of type of

vocabulary based on how the learners use the words. Oral vocabulary is the words

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which are used in listening and speaking, while print vocabulary is the words

which are used in reading and writing. On the other hand, receptive vocabulary

and productive vocabulary are the division of type of vocabulary based on how

the learners recognize the words. The words in receptive vocabulary are

recognized by hearing and seeing them, whereas the words in productive

vocabulary are recognized by speaking and writing them.

2.1.3 Aspects Related to Vocabulary

According to Ur (1991) there are some aspects related to vocabulary which

are needed to be learnt:

1) Form: pronounciation and spelling. The learners have to know how the

words are pronounced and how the words are spelled.

2) Grammar. The grammar of a new item is of course very important to be

learnt. In certain grammatical contexts, the changes of some words‟ forms

are unpredictable. For example, when teachers teach new verbs, it is

important to give its past forms, if those are irregular (think, thought),

transitive or intransitive (raise, rise). In teaching noun, it is better to provide

its plural form, if irregular (mouse, mice), or the words which do not have

plural form such as advice, information. Also, it is necessary to present

verbs such as want and enjoy combined with the verb form which follows

them (want to, enjoy-ing), or adjective or verbs combined with their

following preposition (responsible for, remind someone of).

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3) Collocation. Collocation is two or more words that often go together. The

combination sometimes can be unnatural and sound “wrong” but it sounds

“right” to native speakers who use it all the time. For instance:

Natural English Unnatural English

The fast train

Fast food

The quick train

Quick food

A quick shower

A quick meal

A fast shower

A fast meal

4) Aspects of meaning: denotation, connotation, appropriateness.

Denotation is the meaning of words which truly refers to the real words and

it is appropriate with the definition which is given in dictionary. For example, dog

denotes a kind of animals.

Connotation is the association between positive or negative feeling which is

created, and it is not explained in dictionary definition. For example, dog as

known by British people has positive connotation of friendship and loyalty, while

in Arabic dog has negative connotation of dirt and inferiority.

Aspects of meaning which is also needed to be learnt is whether a particular

word is appropriate to be used in certain context or not, it is usually known as

formal and informal. For example, weep has identical denotation meaning with

cry, but it is more formal. So that, it tends to be used in writing more than in

speech.

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5) Aspects of meaning: meaning relationship. The meaning of one item which

relates to the meaning of the other item is very useful in teaching

vocabulary. There are various such relationship:

Synonims: the words which have the same meaning or close meaning

such as bright, clever, smart are the synonyms of intelligent.

Antonyms: the words which have the opposite meaning, such as rich is

the antonym of poor.

Hyponyms: the words which are the specific example of general concept,

such as rose is the hyponym of flower.

Co-hyponyms or co-ordinates: the other words which include in the same

kind of thing, such as red, blue, green, and brown are co-hyponyms or

co-ordinates.

Superordinates: it is the antonym of hyponyms. Superordinates is the

general concept of specific items such as animal is the superordinate of

dog, cat, lion, mouse.

Translation: the meaning of words or items in the learners‟ mother

tongue, such as buku is the translation of book.

6) Word formation. Vocabulary items in which one-word or multi-word can be

broken down into their component. Types of word formation are:

Affixation

Teachers are better to teach common prefixes and suffixes. If students

understand the meaning of sub-, un-, ful, -able, etc., it will be very

helpful for students in guessing the meaning of words such as

substandard, ungrateful, and untranslatable.

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Compounding (compounding of two or more independent words)

Compounding is vocabulary item which is built by combining two words

(it can be two nouns, a gerund and a noun, or a noun and a verb) into one

item, such as: bookcase, follow-up, and swimming pool.

Blended

Blended is vocabulary item which is built by blending two words into a

new one, for example: breakfast + lunch = brunch; information +

entertainmnet = infotainment.

Conversion

Conversion constitutes a word that can be co-opted from one part of

speech and used to another. Especially, nouns are converted into verbs,

such as: Let’s brunch tomorrow. Other parts of speech can be converted

as well: she upped and left (preposotion → verb); a balloon flight is an

absolute must (verb → noun).

Clipping (new words are coined by shortening)

Clipping constitutes new words that can be coined by shortening or

clipping longer words, such as: flu (from influenza), email (from

electronic mail).

All in all, there are six aspects related to vocabulary, they are: form

(pronounciation and spelling), grammar, collocation, aspects of meaning

(denotation, connotation, appropriateness), aspects of meaning relationship

(synonims, antonyms, hyponyms, co-hyponyms, superordinates, translation), and

word formation (affixation, compounding, blended, conversion, clipping). From

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the definitions above, it is clear that those aspects are very important to be learnt

in vocabulary learning.

2.2 Vocabulary Mastery

In learning a foreign language, vocabulary is the first component which

should be mastered by learners. According to Wallace (1982, in Furqon 2013),

vocabulary is the first key of language, because several words are needed by the

speakers to express their ideas so listeners can understand what they say. When

learners want to master a foreign language, the vocabulary of that foreign

language should be mastered first. It can be said that the more words which are

recognized, the easier language will be learnt, and having a good vocabulary

mastery is very useful for learners to learn and understand the language itself. It is

also supported by Cameron (2001), “building up a useful vocabulary is central to

the learning of a foreign language at primary level.” It means, in the basic level of

learning a foreign language, developing vocabulary is the most important thing.

Moreover, mastering vocabulary is not only knowing the meaning of words,

but also knowing how to pronounce and use the words itself. As stated by Miller

& Gildea (1987, in Lehr et. al. 2001), using and understanding the words correctly

are not as simply as knowing them in dictionary or by sight and sound. It can be

said, learners who know words by sight and sound and know its definition in

dictionary cannot be guaranteed that they are able to understand and use those

words correctly. However, learners who understand and be able to use the words

correctly, it can be ensured that they will recognize the words when those are

heard and seen in various context.

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In mastering vocabulary, learners should learn vocabularies over and over

again. As Cameron (2001) says that in learning a new words, it cannot be learnt

once and then finished. It means that learning vocabulary is a continuous process.

It is a recurrent process that when learners meet new words, after they meet those

words in many times, and each time conveys the knowledge of what those words

mean, so they can use them correctly in the foreign language, it can be said that

learners have already mastered those vocabulary items.

As a result, the better vocabulary mastery of the learner, the easier they will

be able to learn the language. It means, having a lot of vocabulary items will help

learners to understand and master the language easily. For these reasons,

vocabulary mastery is very important in learning a language.

2.3 Vocabulary Test

It is necessary for learners to have vocabulary test in order to measure their

vocabulary mastery. As Ur (1991) states, “a test may be defined as an activity

whose main purpose is to convey how well the testee knows or can do

something.” It can be said that vocabulary test is aimed to show the measurement

of the testees or students in mastering the vocabulary of a language. He also adds

that tests are often used for assessment. It means, the score of the vocabulary test

can define the level of the testees or students on vocabulary mastery.

According to her, there are many vocabulary test, as follows:

2.3.1 Multiple-choice

Multiple-choice consists of questions and some options related to the

answer of the question (usually four options) which the testee has to choose the

right one. In this test, only meaning is tested.

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1) Example 1

Choose the letter of the item which is the nearest in meaning to the word in

italics:

He was reluctant to answer.

a) unprepared

b) unwilling

c) refusing

d) slow

(Ur, 1991: 70)

2) Example 2

Choose the letter of the definition which comes closest in meaning to the

word elated.

a) ready and willing

b) tense and excited

c) tending to talk a lot

d) in high spirit

(Ur, 1991: 70)

2.3.2 Matching

This test consists of two columns or groups of words and the testee has to

link each word in the first column to the word in the second column. Same as

multiple-choice, only meaning is tested in this test.

1) Example 1

Draw lines connecting the pairs of opposites.

A B

brave awake

female expensive

cheap succeed

asleep cowardly

fail male

(Ur, 1991: 70)

In this example, the testee‟s knowledge of meaning and knowing the

opposite of words is tested.

2) Example 2

Which of the prefixes in Column A can combine with which of the words in

Column B? Write out the complete words.

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A B

Over human

Trans national

Super flow

Dis form

Inter infect

(Ur, 1991: 70)

In this example, the aspect which is tested is wether the testee is familiar

with the existence of combined words. As a result, they probably also know its

meaning.

2.3.3 Odd one out

In this test, the purpose is only to test the meaning of words, but in more

interesting way to do. The testee has to mark one word that most different with the

other words. For example:

Underline the odd one out: goat, horse, cow, spider, sheep, dog, cat.

(Ur, 1991: 70)

2.3.4 Writing sentences

Although spelling and pronounciation are not tested in this test, and it is

little bit boring to do, but this test can measures the knowledge of the testee well.

For example:

For each of the following words, write a sentence that makes its meaning

clear.

1) wealth

2) laughter

3) decision

4) brilliant

(Ur, 1991: 70)

2.3.5 Dictation

Aural recognition and spelling are tested in this test. Consequently, if the

testee can recognize and spell the vocabulary items, they probably know the

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meaning also. For instance, the teacher dictates the words, and the students write

them down.

2.3.6 Dictation-translation

In this test, the aspects which are checked are meaning and spelling. The

teacher dictates the mother-tongue equivalents of words, and the students write

down the target language version.

2.3.7 Gap-filling

Meaning, spelling, grammar, and collocation are checked in this test. The

testee has to fill the blank or gap. For example:

In the seventeenth _______ Spanish ships sailed _______ to Central and

_______. America to fetch gold for the Spanish _______. The ships were

often attacked by _______, who infested the „Spanish Main‟ (the sea

_______ north-east of Central and South America).

(Ur, 1991: 71)

In this test, however, the testee may write down possibly items which are

acceptable but not in fact the originals.

2.3.8 Gap-filling with a ‘pool’ of answer

This test is quite simillar to Gap-filling test, but what makes them different

is the items to fill the gap are given in this test. Thus, it is easier to do and mark

than Gap-filling test. However, spelling is not tested because the items to answer

the gap are already given, so the aspects which are tested are meaning, grammar,

and collocation. The example of Gap-filling with a „pool‟ answer test is:

Complete this passage using the words from the list:

area, century, pirates, goverment, regularly, South

In the seventeenth _______ Spanish ships sailed _______ to Central and

_______. America to fetch gold for the Spanish _______. The ships were

often attacked by _______, who infested the „Spanish Main‟ (the sea

_______ north-east of Central and South America).

(Ur, 1991: 71)

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2.3.9 Translation

Translation test measures all aspects of vocabulary items but it is little bit

difficult to do. The procedure of this test is: the students are given sentences in the

mother tongue, and they have to translate them into the target language, or vice

versa.

2.3.10 Sentence Completion

This test measures the denotative meaning only, it is interesting to do. For

example:

Finish the following sentences:

1. I feel depressed when ..............

2. I never have an appetite when ................

3. It was a great relief when ................

(Ur, 1991: 71)

To summarize, there are ten types of vocabulary test to be used in

measuring learner‟s vocabulary mastery, namely: Multiple-choice, Matching, Odd

One Out, Writing Sentences, Dictation, Dictation-translation, Gap-filling, Gap-

filling with a „pool‟ of answer, Translation, and Sentence Completion. In each

test, the aspects which are tested are different from each other. For example,

Multiple-choice is aimed to test the meaning of vocabulary item only. Therefore,

Multiple-choice cannot test the spelling, pronounciation, grammar, and so on.

Same as Multiple-choice, Matching test and Odd One Out also just test the

meaning of vocabulary item. What makes them different are just the each

technique to do the test. Meanwhile, Writing Sentence test measures most other

aspects except spelling and pronounciation. In Dictation test and Dictation-

translation test, the aspects which are tested are meaning and spelling of

vocabulary item. However, the difference is just the technique to do the tests. Gap

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filling with a „pool‟ of answer and gap-filling are almost same. The only thing that

makes them different are, in Gap-filling with a „pool‟ of answers, there are some

words which are given to fill the gap, while in Gap-filling are not. In both tests,

the aspects which are tested are meaning, collocation, and some extent grammar.

However, spelling are tested in Gap-filling, while in Gap-filling with a „pool‟ of

answers are not. Next, Translation test is purposed to test all aspects of vocabulary

item. The last is Sentence Completion test which has purpose to test the meaning

of vocabulary item only. Those tests are able to be used in order to measure the

level of vocabulary mastery of the testee, but which test is better to be used is

based on which aspects that are going to be tested. The test maker can use only

one type of vocabulary tests, but also can combine some types of them.

2.4 Reading

Beside reading is one of important skills in learning English, reading is also

known as important activity in daily life. By reading, people can get knowledge,

information or even experience. In educational world, reading is very important

because mostly the material of lessons in school are in written forms.

Consequently, it is impossible for students to study without doing reading. As

stated by Callahan & Clark (1988, in Nurazizah 2011), that reading is a key to

educational success.

What is reading? According to Schick (1996, in Nurgati 2007), “reading is

a tool of acquisitive mind; is the vehicle for obtaining ideas that cannot be

transmitted verbally”. It clearly shows that reading is considered as an instrument

to extract what the writers want to say through their written texts. In line with

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Schick, Grabe & Stoller (2013) also define reading as a way to draw meaning and

information from a text and interpret the information appropriately.

Moreover, Binter, et al. (1970, in Nurgati 2007) state, “in one sense, reading

is the art of transmitting the ideas, facts and feelings from the mind and soul of an

author to the mind and soul of a reader, with accuracy and understanding, and

much more”. In other words, reading makes writers easier to share his/her ideas,

knowledge, thoughts, and feelings to readers. Not only obtaining messages from a

text, but readers also have an interpretation about what they have read.

To conclude, reading is a process of determining the idea and

comprehending the feeling and thought extended by the writer and also gaining

information and knowledge from written text.

2.5 Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the substance of reading. According to

Mastropieri & Scruggs (1997, in Burkhour 1999), reading comprehension is the

way to understand the meaning of a written text by connecting the interrelated

information throughout the text. It can be said that reading comprehension is the

process when the readers get and build the information from the text. In addition,

Grabe & Stoler (2013) states, reading comprehension is a process when readers

are processing words, making a representation of general main ideas of a text and

interpreting it into a new understanding. In other words, reader can be said that

they have already comprehend the text if they are successfully get the knowledge

which are contained in the text and be able to make their own new understanding

of that text.

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From those definition above, it can be defined that reading comprehension

is the understanding of readers after they read a text or reading material and the

ability of making their own interpretation about the text or reading material that

has been read.

2.6 Reading Tests

Reading test is very important in order to measure how good the testee or

the students in comprehending the text or reading material. The test usually

consists of paragraphs that the students have to read and some questions that they

should answer related to the paragraphs which they have read. The questions are

generally about asking the main ideas of the paragraphs, supporting details, the

point of view of the writer, specific vocabulary in the passage, structure, literal

meaning, etc. According to Alderson (2000) there are some techniques for testing

reading as follows:

2.6.1 The Cloze Test and Gap-Filling Tests

Cloze tests and Gap-Filling test is the test that is made by omitting or

deleting some words from selected texts. The omitted words of the text are

purposed to measure semantic sensitivity, grammatical sensitivity, sensitivity to

the topic of the text, etc. For example:

The fact is that one cloze test can be very different from another cloze test

based on the same text. 1) ... pseudo random construction procedure

guarantees that 2) ... test-writer does not really know 3) ... is being tested:

she simply 4) ... that if enough gaps are 5) ... , a variety of different skills 6)

... aspects of language use will 7) ... involved, but inevitably this is 8) ...

Despite the claims of some 9) ... , many cloze items are not 10) ... to the

constrain of discourse 11) ... much as to the syntactic 12) ... of the

immediately preceding context. 13) ... depends upon which words are 14) ...

, and since the cloze test 15) ... has no control over the 16) ... of words, she

has minimal 17) ... over what is tested.

(Alderson, 2000: 209)

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2.6.2 Multiple Choice Techniques

Multiple choice test is commonly used to measure the comprehension of

the students in reading a text. This test is generally made to deliberately tricking

the students in choosing the possible answer because their attention will be

distracted to more than one possible options. Therefore, for the weak reader, they

may have mistake in answering the question and in understanding the text. In

multiple choice, stundents are only required to choose the correct answer. For

example:

(After reading the text)

Choose the best answer!

1. Memorising is easier when the material to be learned is ...

a. in a foreign language

b. already partly known

c. unfamiliar but easy

d. of no special interest

(Alderson, 2000:211)

2.6.3 Matching Techniques

Matching is nearly simillar to multiple choice because it is often distracted

students by options or choices that they have not thought before. However, the

form is different from multiple choice. There are two kinds of matching

techniques, they are ordering tasks and dichotomus items.

a. Ordering tasks

Ordering task is the test which consists of disordering set of words,

sentences, paragraphs, or texts, then testees are required to put them into the

correct order. For example:

Put them in the correct answer!

(Write the letter of each in the space on the right)

A. It was called “The Last Waltz” 1..D..

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B. The street was in total darkness 2. ....

C. Because it was one he and Richard had learnt at school 3. ....

D. Peter looked outside 4. ....

E. He recognized the tune 5. ....

F. And it seemed deserted 6. ....

G. He thought he heard someone whistling 7. ....

(Alderson, 2000: 221)

b. Dichotomus items

In dichotomus items, the test maker presents a statement related to the target

text and students have to decide wheter that statement is True or False. It is the

popular technique because of the ease of its construction. For example:

(After reading the text)

Read the article above and answer the question!

(Choose ‘Right’ or ‘Wrong’ and if there is not enough information to

answer ‘Right’ or ‘Wrong’, choose ‘Doesn’t say’)

1. A lot of people want to photograph Brendan.

a. Right b. Wrong c. Doesn‟t say

(Alderson, 2000:223)

2.6.4 Editing Tests

Editing test is like analyzing error in passage. The testees have to identify

the error of the text and write the revision. For example:

(The italic words are the error item)

Identify one error in every line and write the correction opposite the

line!

Billboard advertising should been abolished along public 1) be

highways. There are three reason I believe that billboard 2) ...

advertising should not been permitted near public highways. 3) ...

First, I think that billboards is ugly and hinder the enjoyment 4) ...

of natural roadside beauty. Second, billboards is destruction 5) ...

and therefore, I believe, a danger to the motorist, who should 6) ...

keeping his eyes on the road. Third, the purposes of billboards 7) ...

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is to promote private business, therefore they does not belong 8) ...

to public, tax supported highways.

(Nurgati, 2007: 12)

2.6.5 Short-answer Tests

In short-answer tests, the testees are given a question and they have to

answer it briefly. This test is aimed to observe whether testees or students have

understood the content of the text or not. For example:

There was a time when Marketa dislike her mother-in-law. That was when

she and Karel were living with her in-laws (her father-in-law was still alive)

and Marketa was exposed daily to the woman‟s resentment and touchiness.

They couldn‟t bear it for long moved out. Their motto at the time was „as far

from Mama as possible‟. They had gone to live in a town at the other end of

the country and thus could see Karel‟s parents only once a year.

Question: What is the relationship between Marketa and Karel?

Expected answer: husband and wife.

(Alderson, 2000: 227)

2.6.6 The Free-Recall Test

The free-recall test is the test which is purposed to measure the reader‟s

comprehension and the process in comprehending the test. In free-recall test, the

testees have to read the text, then they are required to write down what they

remember after read the text without looking at the text again. For example:

Apple tree in Indonesia (especially in Malang) was known about the

year 1908 before Indonesia proclaimed the independence. The Dutch was

the first people who brought it, and reached good area for apple growing.

Batu is one of them, and above all it is the most suitable. The first apple

variety grown in Batu was Rome Beauty.

This paragraph might be contain the following idea units:

1. About 1908, apple tree was known in Indonesia.

2. Dutch people who brought it.

3. Batu is one of good area for apple growing.

4. Rome beauty is the first apple variety grown in Batu.

(Nurgati, 2007: 13)

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2.6.7 The Summary Test

In this test, testees are required to read the text, catch and summarize the

main ideas of the text. This test will be difficult for the testee which is still

influenced by their first language. For these reason, the testees are usually allowed

to summarize in the first language than the target language.

To conclude, there are seven kinds of vocabulary tests. They are The Cloze

Test and Gap-Filling Test, Multiple-Choice Techniques, Matching Techniques,

Editing Tests, Short-answer Tests, The Free-Recall Test, and The Summary Test.

Basically, those tests which have already been mentioned above have the same

purpose. They are purposed to convey how well the testee has already

comprehend the text, got the main idea and specific information in the text. The

differences are in the technique and the level of difficulty in doing every test.

2.7 Relationship between Vocabulary Mastery and Reading

Comprehension

Vocabulary is the important component in learning a foreign language

especially English, because it is related to all of the other components such as

grammar and pronounciation, and also all of the skills in learning English like

reading, listening, speaking, and writing.

Vocabulary mastery is strongly related to reading comprehension. As

Hiebert & Kamil (2005) states, “vocabulary knowledge may have an impact on

other abilities, which in turn contribute to reading comprehension.” In line with

Hiebert & Kamil, Lehr et. al. (2001) also point out that “one of the most persistent

findings in reading research is that the extent of students‟ vocabulary knowledge

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relates strongly to their reading comprehension and overall academic success.” It

can be said that vocabulary mastery is considered as the important component in

reading comprehension and having lack of vocabulary may be the reason why

learners find some difficulties in reading activities.

According to The National Reading Panel (2000, in Hiebert & Kamil 2005),

there are many components of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,

vocabulary, and comprehension. Moreover, vocabulary holds special place among

those components. It is supported by Johnson (2008), who claims, “word

knowledge affects students‟ ability to comprehend what they read, which in turn

helps them expand their knowledge base and which in turn facilitates their

vocabulary growth, which in final turn enhances their ability to comprehend what

they read.” It clearly shows that vocabulary mastery and reading comprehension

are related each other. The learners who do not have sufficient vocabularies to

comprehend what they read, usually avoid reading. Because they avoid reading,

they lose the opportunity to learn new words. Consequently, their word

knowledge becomes poorer and poorer. On the other hand, the learners who have

sufficient vocabularies tend to like reading a lot. By reading a lot of texts or

reading materials, they increase their word knowledge, so their vocabulary

mastery and reading ability become better and better.

In brief, vocabulary mastery and reading comprehension are related each

other and cannot be separated in learning foreign language especially English.

Having good vocabulary mastery influence the ability in reading comprehension,

and having good reading comprehension allow learners to have larger

vocabularies.