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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the literature review is to expend upon the context and background of the

study to further defining the problem and to provide an empirical basis for their

subsequences development of hypotheses. Borg and Gall (1988) mention that the review

can also help in reaching a number of specific goals, delimiting the research problem,

seeking new approaches avoiding sterile approaches.

“Practically all-human knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike other

animals that must start new with each generation, man builds upon the accumulated and

recorded knowledge of the past”. John.W.Best

The Phrase ‗review of related literature‘ consists of two words i.e. Review and Literature.

The term ‗Review‘ means to organize the knowledge of the specific area of research to

evolve an edifice of knowledge to show that proposed study would be an addition to this

field. In research methodology the term ‗Literature‘ refers to the knowledge of a

particular area of investigation of any discipline, which includes theoretical, practical and

its research studies. The task of review of related literature is highly creative and tedious

because the researcher has to synthesize the available knowledge of the field in organized

and systematic way to provide the rationale for his/her study.

The review of related literature is an important part of the scientific approach and is

carried out in all areas of research. This provides the researcher the means of getting to

the frontier in his particular field of knowledge. It helps to understand the theory in the

field and gives knowledge with regard to the procedures and instruments which have

proved useful. It avoids unintentional replication of previous studies and keeps the

researcher in a better position to interpret the significance of his own results. Thus, it

could be seen that the review of related literature is very important and essential step in

designing any research work. Review of related literature implies locating, studying and

52

revaluating reports of relevant researches, study of published articles, going through

related portions of encyclopedias and research abstracts, study of pertinent pages out of

comprehensive books on the subject and going through related manuscripts, if

any. Survey of previous researches done in the past in associated areas of research by the

investigator is extremely important. It helps in identifying the problem; provide a

background for the development of study in terms of methods, tool design and what has

been investigated. The related literature makes the investigator up to date. It also helps

the investigator in safeguarding the work from pitfalls and weakness with which some of

the earlier researches have suffered.

To get acquaintance with the type of research work undertaken in the field of academic

achievement, underachievement, school environment, academic stress and socio-

economic status among adolescents, an attempt was made to review literature. Going

through the literature of the last few decades, particularly last couple of years, a number

of research studies (both Indian and Abroad) have been identified which have either

direct bearing on the recent study. This enlightened the investigator about the present

status of the problems taken up for research, what has been done in that field and what

remains still to be done. Also what the likely challenges are to be faced by the present

researcher in conducting the study.

A systematic review of the related literature not only guides to select a good problem but

also prevent the unnecessary duplication, provides valuable clues to formulate the

hypotheses, suggests appropriate design to conduct study, helps in selection of the

suitable tools and above all provides a comparative data which is useful in the

interpretation of the results. Pauline Young expressed the following function of the

resume of the related literature.

Help to avoid duplication of what already exist in the writings or in the print.

Function the thinking on a given subject as a result of the mental stimulation and

reflection.

53

Carry the subject of inquiry further or into related channels and begin the work

where someone else has left it.

Give the valuable clues as the methods, scores and organization of the data.

The survey of the related literature is an important step in conducting Educational

research. It enables the investigator to locate the gaps and find the trends in research in a

particular field. The information about the designs, samples, and research tools employed

by other investigators help the future investigators to formulate their designs with more

care. An investigator must be aware of the new research conducted in the past and only

then he/she is in a position to contribute something in original. (Good 1972) has rightly

remarked," without a critical study of the related literature the investigator was grouping

in the dark and perhaps uselessly, repeat the work already done. Therefore in order to

save time, energy and resources, it is necessary to undertake a detailed and penetrating

study of all available literature."

The review of the literature serves as a guide just to judge the quantum of the work done

and perceive the gaps existing in the concerned research. A critical review of the

literature enables the researcher to go into greater details and wider applicability of the

problem in hand so as to provide new ideas, explanations or hypotheses. The review

promotes a greater understanding of the problem and its allied aspects and ensures that

unnecessary and useless duplication is avoided. According to Tuckman (1972) the

purpose of the literature review is to expand upon the context and back ground of the

study, to help further to define the problem and to provide an empirical basis for the

subsequent development of hypotheses.

This chapter is devoted to review, the available literature relevant to the present study. An

effort has been made to cover almost all the important dimensions that may have a direct

bearing on the study.

A systematic procedure has been followed in reviewing related literature for this study.

The investigator listed all key words related to the topic and used preliminary sources

54

such as resource of education, current index to journals in education, psychological

abstracts and educational abstracts to locate relevant sources of information. After

locating the source the investigator carefully analyzed studies related to the topic of the

current research. So review of related literature is an essential aspect of research.

The review has been organized under two different headings:

Survey type studies on cognitive strategy.

Co relational studies on cognitive strategy.

This chapter presents an interpretation of why the category of learning disabilities

emerged, that differs from interpretations that currently prevail. It argues that the

category was created in response to social conditions during the late 1950s and early

1960s which brought about changes in schools that were detrimental to children whose

achievement was relatively low. The category was created by white middle class parents

in an effort to differentiate their children from low-achieving low-income and minority

children. The category offered their children a degree of protection from probable

consequences of low achievement because it upheld their intellectual normalcy and the

normalcy of their home backgrounds, and it suggested hope for a cure and for their ability

eventually to attain higher status occupations than other low achievers.

The facilitative and essential aspects of strategy use are the focus of this next section of

the chapter. It is one thing to demonstrate that humans use cognitive and metacognitive

strategies to process and monitor incoming information, to solve problems and to

comprehend. It is quite another to demonstrate that these strategies can lead to improved

performance. Yet, the cognitive research conducted during the 1970s and 1980s is replete

with studies demonstrating that, in fact, cognitive and metacognitive strategies can be

taught, and when taught, they can lead to increased performance. In this section, we

highlight some of the key studies within this genre of research. We recognize that these

are a very few among literally hundreds of studies demonstrating the effectiveness of

55

strategy instruction. Cognitive and metacognitive studies have been discussed together as

cognitive strategy instructional studies.

Single Strategy Studies: It is fitting to begin this review with an early study of Pressley

(1976) since he was arguably the most influential proponent of cognitive strategy

instruction and since his books remain among the seminal works of the practical

application of cognitive strategy instruction (Gaskins & Elliot, 1991; Pressley &

Woloshyn, 1995; Wood, Woloshyn, & Willoughby, 1995). In one of the first

comprehension instructional studies, Pressley (1976) measured the effectiveness of

training 86 third-grade students to use mental imagery on their reading comprehension

scores. Students in the experimental condition were taught to create mental images of a

text by being told that creating mental images was an effective way to remember, being

shown pictures that contained the necessary elements for the text, and being given

practice in this procedure. Students in the control condition were instructed to recall the

text and ―do whatever you can or have to in order to remember the story‖. Results

showed that average and Learning disabled children in the experimental groups answered

significantly more questions correct than their counterparts in the control group. There

was little difference in scores between good readers in the two conditions. Pressley

(1976) concluded that when 8-year-olds are given training and practice in using mental

imagery, consistently reading first then visualizing second, they showed improvements in

their memory of a concrete and easy-to-understand story.

Singer and Donlan (1982), tested whether high-school students could be trained in

generating specific types of questions about complex short stories, and whether this

training increased their comprehension scores. Singer and Donlan‘s study was one of the

first, if not the first, to determine if students could generate their own questions, instead

of answering questions the teacher had generated. Twenty-seven 11th-grade students

were divided into an experimental treatment group and a traditional instruction group,

with both groups using the same six stories during the experiment and taking the same

daily 10-point comprehension test. Instruction in the traditional group involved teacher-

posed questions about the stories and student essay writing. The experimental group

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received instruction in five basic story elements (a problem-solving schema), one each

day. Results indicated that knowing a problem-solution schema along with use of general

and story-specific questions during reading helped students improve in their

comprehension of short stories. The authors concluded that reading complex stories

required training in these problem-solution strategies, and that high-school students were

able to acquire this knowledge.

Brown and Day (1983) measured developmental growth in children‘s and adults‘ ability

to use five basic ―macrorules‖ of summarizing expository texts. The rules, some of which

are taken from Kintsh & van Dijk (1978), are, a) deletion of unnecessary material, b)

deletion of redundant information, c) superordination (i.e., substituting a superordinate

term for instances of that term), c) selection of topic sentences, and d) invention, or

creation of topic sentences that describe an implicit main idea.

Participants in study one were 18 fifth graders, 16 seventh graders, 13 tenth graders, and

20 four-year college students. They were instructed to read a text three times, then write

what they considered to be a good summary, followed by a constrained, 60-word

summary. Findings revealed that even young children were able to perform certain rules

of summarization. The probability of effectively using the superordination and selection

rules increased with age. Use of the invention rule was infrequent by all groups, and use

increased with age.

Next, two experts, who were college rhetoric teachers, performed a think aloud while

generating a summary. The experts performed perfectly on the deletion rules, and far

superior to college students on the superordination and invention rules, and no

differences between groups was found in the selection rules. Further, unlike the younger

students, the experts combined ideas across paragraphs and wrote their summaries around

topic sentences.

The final experiment was a repetition of the procedure from the first experiment;

however, participants were 20 junior college students, a group considered less successful

at using basic reading skills, and therefore, considered novice summarizers. Results

57

showed that these students utilized the deletion rules at the same level as the four-year

college students. However, they performed at a level similar to seventh- and tenth-grade

students on the remaining three rules.

In sum, the researchers found a clear developmental pattern for emergence of rule use:

deletion emerges first, followed by superordination, then selection, and, much later,

invention. The authors explained that, ―we believe that the five rules differ in their ease

14 of application because they demand different degrees of text manipulation on the part

of the learner‖ (Brown and Day, 1983, p. 12).

Brown, Day, and Jones (1983) looked developmentally at students‘ ability to summarize

lengthy, complex stories. This time, participants were fifth, seventh and eleventh grade

and first-year college students. Students were given stories to read and instructed to

remember as much as possible all of the ideas in the story. A week later, they

summarized the texts using unlimited words, a 40-word limit, and a 20-word limit.

Results again indicated developmental trends in students‘ ability to write summaries.

College and eleventh-grade students were more likely than younger students to, a) plan

ahead for efficiency and effectiveness of writing summaries, b) recognize the importance

of higher-level words in writing summaries and, c) ―condens more idea units into the

same number of words‖. The authors concluded that this process of using judgment,

intention, knowledge and skill in succinctly summarizing lengthy texts was a ―late-

developing skill that continues to be refined throughout the school years‖.

Taylor and Beach (1984) studied the effects of training students to use a text structure

strategy on their ability to comprehend and remember texts and to write essays.

Participants were 114 seventh-grade students, who were divided into three groups:

experimental instruction, conventional instruction, and no instruction. Students in the

experimental condition received seven weeks of ―instruction and practice in how to

produce and study a hierarchical summary of social studies material that they read‖. This

included making outlines that identified key passage ideas, generating main idea

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statements, and listing important supporting details. The conventional group 15 received

instruction in completing practice questions on main ideas and details from the text.

Results from this study indicated that the experimental group had significantly higher

recall than other groups on an unfamiliar passage. However, on the recall of familiar

texts, the experimental and conventional groups showed similar scores, which were

significantly higher than the group that received no instruction. Results from the short

answer and writing tests revealed no significant differences between the experimental and

conventional groups, with both of these groups doing significantly better than the group

that received no instruction. In sum, the hierarchical text structure training had the

greatest effect on enhancing students‘ recall of unfamiliar, as opposed to familiar, text,

which indicated that students were able to transfer the strategy to a new reading context.

Palincsar and Brown (1984), In one study, seventh-grade struggling readers were

divided into four groups in a laboratory setting: reciprocal teaching, another intervention,

and two non-intervention groups. In the reciprocal teaching condition, the instructor

assigned a passage of text and engaged students in a discussion of the four cognitive and

metacognitive strategies. After reading the passage either the student or teacher lead the

dialogue with peers utilizing the four strategies to assist in comprehending the passage.

Students worked in peer teaching groups practicing the use of the strategies until they

could use the strategies independently. Throughout, instructors provided students with

support as they learned the strategies and told students explicitly that these strategies

were beneficial for understanding what they were reading. The measures of learning

included dialogic changes, transfer tests, generalization tests, daily comprehension tests,

and standardized reading tests. The second study was essentially a replication of the first

except for one important difference. It was conducted in a naturalistic setting with

classroom teachers and students in their regular reading groups. The results from both

studies were similar, revealing that students in the reciprocal teaching groups

outperformed the other groups. Palincsar and Brown‘s work led to a series of studies on

reciprocal teaching in various settings.

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Paris, Cross, and Lipson (1984), in their study was, at the time, ―one of the few

experimental manipulations of metacognition and perhaps the only one to provide

longitudinal, cross-sectional data from a classroom curriculum and intervention‖. This

study was key, in other words, in adding to the relatively new research base on training

studies and to the overall understanding of strategy use and metacognition in reading. The

researchers described metacognition as having two main components, a) declarative,

procedural, and conditional knowledge about what strategies are, how to use them, and

when and why various strategies should be used, and b) knowing how to ―evaluate, plan,

and regulate [one‘s] own comprehension in strategic ways‖.

Participants were 87 third graders and 83 fifth graders from eight classrooms. Two

classrooms from each grade were in the treatment group that received four months of the

strategy curriculum, and two from each grade were control classrooms. In the ISL

training a researcher explained the strategies and their appropriate application to students,

modeled strategy use, and providing guided and independent practice with feedback from

the instructor and peers. Results showed that groups receiving the ISL training

significantly outperformed control groups on the cloze and error detection tasks, which

the authors concluded showed that the students were using the instructed strategies. The

multiple-choice test results (of relative knowledge) indicated that almost all of the

students from the treatment groups learned the strategies from the ISL training rather than

from a different source. However, no significant differences were found between the two

groups on two standardized test measures.

The authors explained that the value of the study is that it shows convincingly that

through direct instruction, group work, and open discussion about strategies, students in

the classroom setting can be taught how, why and when to use reading strategies, and that

they begin to use them on their own. Further, ―we can infer from their increased

performance on strategic tasks that they also learned how to evaluate, plan, and regulate

their reading‖. In sum, the study demonstrated that metacognition in reading can be

taught to students.

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Two studies conducted by Duffy and his colleagues (Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, Vavrus,

Book, Putnam, & Wesselman, 1986; Duffy, Roehler, Sivan, Rackliffe, Book, Meloth,

Vavrus, Wesselman, Putnam, & Bassiri, 1987) were also pivotal in demonstrating the

possibility and value of teaching cognitive strategies to students. The purpose of the

studies was to examine whether teachers could be successfully taught to provide explicit

instructions to students, whether these explanations improved students' awareness of the

need to use strategies and how to apply them, and whether these explanations improved

student achievement. Twenty-two fifth-grade teachers and their low reading group

students participated in the first study and 20 third-grade teachers and their low reading

group students participated in the second study. Trained teachers were compared to

control group teaches who received no training.

In the first study, researchers taught teachers how to transform typical basal skills

instruction into cognitive strategy instruction. Classroom teachers were instructed in how

to explicitly discuss the mental processes and cognitive strategies involved in

comprehension, focusing on the "reasoning" and problem-solving nature of strategy use

instead of skill-based procedures. Specifically, teachers were trained to discuss openly

with students the strategy (skill) they were learning, why they were learning it, why it

was important, and how and when they could use it as they read.

The researchers found that, a) treatment group teachers were more explicit in their

instruction than control group teachers and, b) this explicit instruction improved students‘

awareness of the need for strategy use and their metacognitive awareness of strategies.

Additionally, results from the second study showed that treatment group students scored

higher than controls on most parts of the nontraditional measures of reading achievement.

Treatment students also scored higher on a maintenance test that was administered five

months after the conclusion of the study.

Idol and Croll (1987) examined story mapping as a strategy in aiding reading

comprehension. Students with learning disabilities and a heterogenous group of 3rd- and

4th-grade students participated in two separate studies. A basic assumption in these

studies was that all texts shared a basic organizational structure and that a link between

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students‘ knowledge structures (schemata) and text structure would facilitate

comprehension. In the first study, results from responses to the reading comprehension

questions indicated that all students improved through the intervention, a finding that

suggests ―mapping of story components is an effective way to build structural schemata‖.

Additionally, the four students who completed all phases of instruction maintained, on a

significant level, the improved reading comprehension after the instruction was

discontinued.

Idol (1987) in his study, he took twenty-two students randomly assigned to one of two

intervention groups, and five students were in a control group. A multiple-baseline design

was used, where groups received the same intervention, begun on different days. The

primary measure of comprehension was responses to the comprehension questions.

Results showed a significant increase in the average scores of both intervention groups

with story map use. Further, the low-achieving and learning disabled students showed a

general and maintained improvement in comprehension scores. The author concluded

that explicitly stating and explaining expectations in using the story mapping strategy

created comprehension improvements in heterogeneous students‘ comprehension scores.

Further, being grouped with mixed-ability students did not hinder high-achievers‘

performance, suggesting that grouping students by ability level may not be necessary.

The single strategy studies we have reviewed are exemplary of dozens of cognitive

strategy instructional studies conducted during the 1980s. They each demonstrated that

teaching students to use a single strategy—like using imagery (Pressley, 1976), self-

questioning (Singer & Donlan, 1982), summarizing (Brown & Day, 1983), using text

structure (Taylor & Beach, 1984) and using story maps (Idol, 1987)—can lead to

significant improvement in reading comprehension. We now review multiple strategy

studies in which researchers have taught several strategies in an effort to improve reading

comprehension.

Multiple Strategy Studies: Arguably the single most important work on cognitive

strategy instruction designed to improve reading comprehension was a set of landmark

studies conducted and summarized by Palincsar and Brown (1984). These researchers

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developed an instructional intervention called reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching

involved instruction of a set of four cognitive and metacognitive strategies: summarizing,

questioning, clarifying difficult parts of text, and predicting. The essential elements of

reciprocal teaching included the initial modeling of the use of each the four strategies,

small groups of students practicing the strategies with a peer acting as teacher, and the

scaffolding of instruction toward independent use of the strategies by students.

2.2 ADVANCES IN COGNITIVE STRATEGY INSTRUCTION

Thus far, we have reviewed several landmark studies in cognitive strategy instruction.

These included seminal works that laid the groundwork for understanding what strategies

are and how to effectively teach them to students. We have not completed an exhaustive

review, and we have limited our review mainly to studies that have influenced the field of

reading. These studies were completed before 1990, and these and other studies have

been reviewed extensively in several sets of research syntheses (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, &

Pearson, 1991; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Pearson & Fielding, 1991; Pressley,

Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, & Kurita, 1989; Pressley, Symons, Snyder, & Cariglia-

Bull, 1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994).

To some in the educational research field, it would appear that all the major work on

cognitive strategy instruction was conducted before 1990. Within the last 18 years,

however, there has been additional research on cognitive strategy instruction. In

particular, the next section of this chapter focuses in detail on four programs of research

using cognitive strategy instruction. This research is significant because it demonstrates a

focus on 1) ongoing, programmatic research where studies build on one another, 2)

teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies to groups of students in ecologically

valid settings, and 3) embedding cognitive strategy instruction within texts students read.

Panda (1970) administered the embedded figure test on 70 males and 70 female's

undergraduates and reported that males are more field independents that females. Stanes

and Gorden (1973) administered children embedded figure test on 7-8 years old children

and they obtained no significant differences with sex.

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Frencher 1973 conducted a study to determine whether the existence of cognitive

strategy in students influence the educational achievements of students when the

influence if I.Q. was parasailed out and when no known or conscious effort had been

made to specifically meet the needs of students based upon there cognitive strategy. The

study contained a random sample of 162 students of 78 boys and 84 girls. The

instruments utilized for this study were the otis.

Lennon mental abilities test (Elementary Second Level) the metropolitan achievement

test, the EFT and Sigel's conceptual strategy test. Based on journal correlation it was

concluded that the traits or skills found in the field independent (SCST) along with both

descriptive sub categories, are compatible with all areas of achievements.

As Witkin and Berry ((1975) also observe, the research evidence available in literature

indicate a persistence difference between the success, though small in magnitude. With

female tending to be more field dependent than males.

Some students have, however not reported any significant differences between the sexes

on the field independent and field dimension. Giel Herdner and Lough (1968) did not

report differences between boys and girls in their studies on pre-schoolers.

In recent years the study of cognitive strategy has facilitate on interesting and productive

interface between cognition and personality. The individual differences in strategy of

perceiving, remembering and thinking have been documented to be closely related to

certain aspects of personality. From a brief review of researches it was found that field

dependence has certain implication for schooling and for education.

Witkin, Moor, Goodnowgh and Cox (1977) Categorization is another way of

examining cognitive strategy. The attribute that people use to categorize a set of objects

is used to establish learning strategy.

Shymansky and Your (1980) found that field independents achieved battery semi

inductive strategies than field dependent. Gifted children are more likely to be field

independent than mentally retarded (Mann and Sabatino, 1985)

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Ellen Rhea Smith (1980) designed the study to determine the effects the training in

logical thinking on the reading comprehension of integrated schools students. He

provided to types of training in logical thinking, mapping, and paraphrasing. The result

showed that there was no interaction between cognitive strategy and treatment (mapping

or paraphrasing). How ever, cognitive strategy appeared to have a significant effect

(p<05) on the reading comprehension of integrated school children. Cecil (1983)

designed a study to investigate the extent to what designated cognitive strategy are

reflected in academic performance on paper and pencil tests. He conducted that a large

percentage of persons who choose the some professional carrier and meet the criteria to

be accepted in to that carrier in a particular educational programme a people who have a

relatively flexible cognitive strategy.

Dani (1984) studied the scientific attitude and cognitive strategy of higher secondary

student and found that:\

Boys and girls did not differ in their cognitive strategies.

Science students were higher in field independence over arts and commerce

students.

City students possessed higher on field independence than town and village

students.

The early adolescents were found to be more field independent than middle and

late adolescents.

Studies on cognitive strategies reported that not only they are influenced by various

factors i.e. socio-economic status, sex, family structure but also influences the learning of

the individual learners. Kumar (1984) reported that science students at university level

are more field independent than the students of arts and commerce.

Another study in the same year presented that the field independent learn and retain more

significantly than field dependents. Research at Bhavnagar University, Gujrat found that

65

field independents appeared to be more effective than field independent in concept

learning at all stages.

This indicates that both the field independents and field dependents requires a different

approach for learning and if we provide them the environment for learning than their

learning capacity will increase which in turn will give good achievement in their areas of

study.

Shipman & Shipman (1985) – Sigles & Brodzinsky (1977) cognitive strategy is

different form ability. Ability is an issue of capacity, while cognitive strategies a matter

of habit. Cognitive strategy reflects individual differences in organizing processing the

uniformities required to do a variety of tasks. Learning strategy link cognitive, affective

and social functioning and are associated with respectively to different types of

instruction (Messick – 1984)

Drolka (1987) designated a study on which he analyzed the effect of matching and

mismatching cognitive strategy and learning environment in special schools. He reached

the conclusion that self perception as to cognitive strategy may only reflect perception of

grading method. He further found that the factors contributing to success with a given

environment differ from the environment to another.

Mc Carthy (1988) also reached similar results. He wanted t measure the cognitive affects

progress of student whose cognitive strategy performance were matched to the special

format designed to enhance them and to compare the results with the progress of students

who were no matched. Statistical analysis revealed that the match students progress in

cognitive variables was significantly better than the no matched or neutrals.

Kotar (1990) designed a study mainly to seek evidence concerning the VTT & RTT of a

cognitive strategy. The cognitive strategy was designed to classify individual cognitive

strategy categories based on expressed ability mode strengths with in the strategy proved

to be a useful instrument for assessing the degree of abstractness of individual and for use

in determining their cognitive strategy.

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Snow. et. al. (1998-2000) identified several individual risk factors for L.D. family history

of reading difficulties poor pretitercy skills either because of inherent cognitive limitation

or home environment, poor literacy related cognitive. Linguistic processing especially

phonological awareness, confrontational naming sentence, story recall and general

language ability. A diagnosis of specific language impairment, hearing impairment and

primary medical diagnosis in which reading problems tend to occur as a secondary

symptom. Among the group factors listed as risk factors for L.D. by snow. et. al is poor

schools, low income poor neighborhood limited.

These finding indicated the characteristic cognitive strategy behavior of individual

learners i.e. field independents works bet when they are put alone in the learning situation

and taught through semi inductive strategies. Some students have, however not reported

any significant differences between the sexes on the field independent sand field

dependent dimension. Giel Herdner and Lough (1968) did not report differences between

boys and girls in their studies on pre-schoolers.

Each of these cognitive strategies shows developmental differences. As children mature,

their, cognitive strategy appears to become more sophisticated and more of a habit. Some

research shows gender differences in cognitive strategy. Cognitive strategies have

educational implications and some are malleable. For example – Meichen Baum

Goodman 1971 found the self instruction training decreased errors in impulsive children.

Cognitive strategies are not without significant critism. Intuitively, they seem important

for teaching and learning. However distinctions between the various strategies are often

tenous at best and are controversial, further more; links of cognitive strategy to academic

achievement are not clearly establishment.

A major reason for this interest, no doubt was that the experimental findings were in such

close agreement with clinically based notons about many learning disabled children.

Teacher and schools psychologists could easily relate to idea of the learning disabled

child as one who is too quick to respond. Because of the intuitive appeal of the cognitive

strategy work to educators, numerous special educators turned their attention to the

67

modification of the dimensions of field dependence and especially, impulsivity. They

hypothesized that impulsivity was a major cause of the behavioral and academic

problems of learning disabled children.

Learning - Disabled children can be trained to respond in more reflective manner. It is not

enough to concentrate training in forts on getting the children to slow down. In other

words longer response times do not automatically lead to fewer errors. Those who have

provided impulsive children with language based strategies. Systematically scanning the

entire alternative whole saying them a aloud, have the most success in making the

cognitive more reflective on e MFF.

Most importantly however, even though children have been made more reflective on the

laboratory – base MFF, this has not made them more reflective in their approach to

classroom based academic task nor has it automatically led to improved academic

responding. After all, if training in cognitive strategies does not lead to improvement in

classroom behavior, then of what use is it while it is true tat the immediate educational

pay off for the learning disabled has been minimal, it is important to place this early

research on cognitive strategies in its proper historical context.

There have been a number of valuable outcomes of this early work on cognitive strategy.

It made the learning disabilities field aware that learning disabled children may have

different strategy of approaching problem solving tasks than do their non handicapped

counterparts. These different strategies include impulsivity as well as are lack of task

approach strategies. This impulsivity and non strategic approach can be modified by

directly teaching, learning disabled children to use task approach strategies. Language is

useful regulator of impulsive behavior.

In order to achieve improvement in academic performance, the focus of cognitive

training needs to on the academic materials those selves rather than on laboratory type

tasks like the MFF. Michael M. Gerber's research concerned with cognitive strategy and

the relation between cognitive strategy and theoretical constructs associated with

cognitive strategy. Cognitive behavior modification and Meta cognition learning.

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Disabled children fail to spontaneously or efficiently use task appropriate strategy.

However precise understanding of the concept of strategy may become progressively

obscured.

Michaels, Carolyn-R, Lewandowski, Lawrence-J (1960) examined parent reports of

behavioral and family functioning for 59 learning disabled LD and 65 non learning

disabled (normal) boys aged 6-12 years old. Parents completed the child behavior

checklist and family. Adaptability and cohesion evaluation scale. LD students were

reported as having significantly more internalizing and externalizing behavior problems

than NLD students. Higher scores (more problems) for LD students were found on the

hyperactive schizoid or anxious, depressed and obsessive variables pertaining to affective

behaviours are described, and case material is included.

Waterman, Lill-m (1981) 84 preadolescent (5th and 6th grade) emotionally disturbed

(ED), learning disabled (LD), and normal boys were compared on social perspective –

taking and behavioural measures to examine contributions of social cognitive deficits to

adjustment problems. Antisocial – pro-social and with drawn gregarious behaviour

dimensions were studies through subscales derived from teachers ratings. Across all

groups, high perspective – taking was associated with significantly less withdrawal than

was low perspective – taking within groups, this finding was significant only for EDSs.

Contrary to theoretical assumptions, antisocial behaviour was not significantly related to

perspective – taking across the sample. Among EDSs, relatively higher affective

perspective taking was significantly correlated with higher antisocial behaviour. This

positive correlation for ED group was significantly different from the non-significant

negative correlations between antisocial behaviour and perspective taking among normal.

Finding for LDSs were intermediate between results for ED and normal Ss on both

perspective taking and behavioural measures and the LD group did not differ

significantly from either other group (6). Classified a perceptually impaired an non-

classified high school students on all variables measured , social skill defects were not a

characteristic of the majority of students classified as perceptually impaired.

69

Mathur, A. A. (1983), A comparative study of the adjustment problems, Level of

Educational aspirations, Self-concept and academic Achievement of Crippled and

Normal Children. The major objectives were:-

1) To compare the home adjustment and health adjustment of crippled and normal

children.

2) To compare level of educational aspiration of crippled and normal children.

3) To compare educational interest of crippled and normal children.

4) To compare academic achievement of crippled and normal children.

Sample: The sample comprised 30 crippled and 30 normal children in the age range of

13-16 years. The two groups were matched in age, sex, iQ, socio-economic status and

institution.

Major findings: Crippled children differ Significantly from normal in health adjustment

and home adjustment. Crippled children differ significantly from normal in the level of

educational aspirations. Crippled children differ significantly from normal in the

educational interest. No significant difference was found between crippled and normal

children in academic achievement.

Singh, D. P. (1983), A comparative study of the achievement of blind and sighted

children studying in an integrated system. The objectives of the study were:-

1. To study the achievement of blind children studying in an integrated system of

learning Hindi.

2. To study the achievement of blind children learning English language in an

integrated approach.

3. To study the achievement of blind children learning social studies in an integrated

approach.

70

4. To study the achievement of blind children learning Sanskrit in an integrated

approach.

Total population of visually handicapped children i.e. 4 studying in class IX in

Government co-educational senior Secondary School, Presidents Estate, New Delhi were

selected for the study and an equal number of 4 sighted children in class IX in the same

institution were selected along with the school periodical tests (September, December,

February) standardized teacher-made tests were administered to these eight (4 blind + 4

sighted) students.

The findings of the study were that the achievement of blind in Hindi, English, Social

studies and Sanskrit was higher than that of sighted children. This goes in favour of

integrated education since we did not control all moderate variables. The higher

achievement of visually handicapped may be result of non-educational factors e.g;

psychological factor and individual factor.

Kulshreshtha, R. (1985), Values orientations, interests and attitudes as Correlates of

self-concept among male and female Adolescents. The Objectives of the study were;

To determine and study the impact of value orientation, interests, and peer

relations upon the concept of self in both male and female adolescents.

To obtain interactions between value-orientations, interests and peer relations on

bivariate and trivariate levels of operation.

Methodology: The sample consisted of 160 high school and inter-mediate college going

students of Aligarh. It represented both males and females, whose age ranged from 15-19

years and who belonged to the urban area . They were from these faculties viz. science,

arts and commerce and generally belonged, to the Middle Secondary Educational

Schools. Value orientation was measured with the help of a Value Orientation scale

developed by N. S. Chauhan, Self-Concept developed by G.P. Sherry. The data were

analyzed with a help of factorial design analysis of variance of equal cell size. Major

Findings of the study were:-

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Value orientations affected the concept of self in adolescents.

Value orientation had a positive affinity with self-concept among male as well as

female adolescents under different levels of interest.

Interest played an important role in the growth of self-concept among adolescent.

It promoted the concept and also demoted the concept of self in various

association bonds with value orientation and peer relation.

Interests were shaping and forming the male adolescent's concept of growth of

educational interest during the period of adolescence in both the sexes depended

upon the variations of interest occurrence.

Peer relations prompted the concept of self also but when value orientations or

interests were operating.

Promotion or demotion of the concept of self by peer relations in case of both males and

females remained different.

D. L. Pareek (1990), A comparative Study of educational interest, Personality traits and

educational aspirations of the Adolescents, studying in Central Schools, Government

schools and Private Schools in Rajasthan.

Methodology: The normative survey method was used 730 students studying in

differentschools framed the sample. Swata Bodh Parikshan by Sherry and Uma, Cattell‘s

16 PF Questionnaire, Level of Educational aspiration and input check-list and students

Educational aspiration Test developed by the researcher were used to collect the data.

Major findings: It was found that 45.2% of the adolescents studying in central schools,

44.2% in private schools and 57.6% in Government Schools possessed average self-

concept. Adolescents studying in private and central schools were more intelligent than

the adolescents studying in government schools. Students in private schools were

generally practical while Government school students preferred arts stream. There existed

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no significant relationship between personality traits and levels of educational aspiration

among students from different types of schools.

Shah, J. H. (1990), A study of relationship among intelligence, self-concept and

academic achievement of pupils of standard X of semi urban and rural areas of Sihore

Taluka. Out of the total population of about 300 pupils of grade X of Sihore Taluka, 305

pupils (61 %) were selected randomly from eight schools out of which two were from

semi urban area. The sample from semi urban area consisted of 60 boys and 67 girls.

From six schools located in rural areas, 169 boys and 69 girls were selected. The sample

was selected by stratified random cluster sampling method. The tools used were J. H.

Shah's self-concept inventory and Desai Bhatt Group intelligence test. To evaluate pupils

academic achievement, the marks obtained in area. Subjects at the Gujarat State

Secondary Education Board - taken into consideration and were converted into

percentage. Mean, S. D., t-test and Pearson's pro correlation were used to treat data.

It was found that there was no sex difference self-concept either in semi urban or rural

areas. There was difference in DIQ's (Deviation Intelligence Quotient) either urban or

rural areas. There was significant difference in academic achievement in favour of boys

in both semi urban and rural areas. There were positive and linear correlation among self-

concept Intelligence Quotient and academic achievement in both types of areas. Also,

intelligence was more related to academic achievement than self-concept.

Kale, P. S, (1991), A study of the development of educational interest of Pre-adolescent

level with reference to some Family and school factors. The Objectives of the study

were:-

1) To trace the general development of educational interest at the preadolescent level

as a function of age and sex.

2) To study sex difference in educational interest development.

3) To study the relationship of internal family factors like parent –parent and parent-

child relationship with educational interest at the pre-adolescent level.

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4) To study the relationship of school factors i.e. teacher-students and peer relations

with educational interest at the pre adolescent.

Methodology: The data were collected from three co-educational Marathi medium

schools. The study was conducted on a sample of 990 children. Tools employed in this

were Self-Concept Inventory, Parent-Child Relationship scale, Parent-Parent

Relationship scale, Scale of Teacher-Student Relationship, Peer Relationship Scale and

Socio-economic status scale of Jogavas. All the tools were specially constructed for this

study except the socio-economics status scale. Descriptive, bardiagrams, frequency

polygons, mean, median, mode, Barttell's homogeneity test analysis of variance, t-test

and multiple correlation regression.

Major findings of the study were:- The perceived self did not show a downward trend

throughout the Pre-adolescent period. It showed a significant upward trend at the end of

this period. According to this, the self-concept did not remain static and showed gradual

development up to the end of the pre-adolescent period. Boys and girls did not differ

significantly in self- concept development. Perception of family factor as well as school

factors showed significant development in concept perception of parent-child

relationship. Girls showed more understanding for parent-parent relationship teacher

student relationship and at the end of the pre-adolescent period and parent-child

relationship. Parent-parent relationship was highly significantly related to self- concept.

Teacher-student relationship was important in self-concept. Parent-child relationship was

significantly associated with self- concept.Peer relations were important in development

of self-concept. Family factors jointly were significantly associated with self-concept.

School factors jointly were significantly associated with self-concept.

Burhan, R. G. (1991), An enquiry into the nature of self-concept in the area of

competence and its impact on mental health and academic achievement. The present

study deals with the problem of self-concepts and tries comprehensive study of a

particular dimension of self-concept, viz, the dimension competence and its relationship

with mental health and academic achievement.

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Objectives of the Study:

1) To study the nature and extent of the real self-concept of competence and the

ideal self-concept of competence, and the discrepancy between the two.

2) To study the nature and extent of mental health in the group studied.

3) To study the relationship between real self-concept/ideal self-concept and mental

ill-health/academic achievement;

4) To study the relationship between each of' the five facets (social, intellectual,

physical, emotional and general) of self-concept in competence and mental ill-

health.

5) To study the relationship between each of the five facets and academic

achievement.

6) To make a comparative study of the three groups of students: the commerce

group, the science group and the combined group.

Methodology: The sample consisted of 432 first year Science and Commerce honours

girl students from seven good institutions with an English medium background and age

between 18 and 20 years. The tools used included a Self-Concept Inventory constructed

and standardized by the investigator, and a Mental III- Health Inventory. Higher

secondary marks in two common subjects were taken as a measure of the academic

achievement of students. The statistical technique used included mean, median, mode,

standard Deviation, skewness and kurtosis, chi-square test, "t" test, coefficient of

correlation, partial correlation and factional analysis.

Major Findings: Real self-concept scores, ideal self-concept scores, real-ideal

discrepancy scores and mental ill-health scores were found to be more or less normally

distributed in the sample and the three groups did not differ significantly among

themselves in respect of distributions of scores on these variables. Real self-concept and

ideal self-concept were highly correlated. Students with high real self-concept scores

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showed lower discrepancy scores. Students who perceived themselves to be highly

competent were relatively from mental ill-health symptoms. A trend could be noticed to

suggest that high ideal self-concept was conducive to mental health. Discrepancy

between real and ideal self-concept was found to be associated with mental ill-health.

Academic achievement was positively associated with perceived intellectual competence

but not with scores of other areas of self-competence. Howe' ideal self-concept regarding

their competence did not seem to affect academic achievement scores. Discrepancies

between the real and ideal self-concept did not affect the academic achievement of the

commerce groups; but in the science group, these two were positively related. Regression

coefficient revealed that intellectual competence had high positive influence upon the

academic achievement of both the science group and commerce group. The other facets

of components showed a negative influence on the academic achievement of the science

group. Students who revealed mental ill-health symptoms were poor in academic

achievement.

Fox and Faver (1991), Achievement and Educational aspiration Patterns Among Male

and Female Academic-Career Aspirants, Work and Occupations. It is considered both

meaning and mediation factors in the achievement-educational aspiration relationship. In

a sample of graduate women students ("academic-career aspirants"), the achievement-

educational aspiration relationship varied with type of academic achievement and

professional educational aspirations, and as it was mediated by women's perceptions of

their professional roles and their faculty's support. Women's achievement-educational

aspiration conversion was different from, but not necessarily lower than, non- graduate

non-working women. Rather, the strength and direction of the relationship varied with

educational aspiration type (traditional versus alternative) and to some extent, with

specific types of academic achievement. The mediators of the achievement-educational

aspiration relationship also vary by work conditions and educational aspiration type.

Women's educational aspirations for traditional career rewards were largely a function of

their perceptions of the structural availability of job opportunity.

76

Kuotsu Banui (1992), The study of academic achievement of college students in

Nagaland in relation to their self-concept. The Objectives of the study were;

1) The study attempts to find out the academic achievement and self- concept of

Nagaland College students.

2) To find out whether differences exist in their self-concept among arts, science and

commerce college students.

3) To find out whether any relationship exists between the academic achievement

and self-concept among college students in Nagaland.

Methodology: The sample consisted of 716 college students drawn from the three

colleges in Kohima Town. They represented the arts, science and commerce streams

including boys and girls. The tools used as Personality Word List by Deo 1973 and the

academic achievement was obtained by collecting their results. Statistical measures

mean, S.D, t-test and correlation were used to treat the data.

Major findings of the study: There was significant difference in the academic

achievement and self-concept of college student of arts, science and commerce stream.

Both science and commerce students showed significantly high academic achievements

then their arts counter parts. No significant difference was found in the mean self-concept

scores between boys and girls among the arts, science and commerce students.

Krishnan, S. Santhana (1993), Relation between self-concept and academic

achievement of college students. The sample of the study comprised of 130 students. Out

of them, 90 were men and 60 were women students. There were 45 urban and 105 rural

students. They were further stratified with faculties, age groups and birth orders.

Stratified random sampling technique had been used to select the sample. The

educational interest tool standardized by Rastogi was used to collect the data. The

investigator applied mean, S. D., t-test, correlation and ANOVA for the treatment of the

data. It was found that there was a significant relationship between educational interest

and academic achievement of the college students. There was a significant difference of

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mean score between arts and science groups of students on self –concept. Sex had no

influence on self-concept of the individuals. Similarly, birth orders had no impact on

educational interest of students. Different age groups had not shown any significance

mean difference on educational interest score.

Maikhuri, R. A. & Pande, S. K. (1997), Self-concept of adolescents in relation to their

academic achievement. Maikhuri & Pande attempted to study the self-concept of

adolescents in relation to their academic achievement. The sample of the study comprised

of 200 students (100 boys and 100 girls) studying in the intermediate College of

Kotdwara city, ho were selected through random selection method. Their age ranged

between 16 to 18 years. The tool used to collect the data included Self-concept Inventory

by Pratibha Deo. The collected data were treated with mean, S.D. and ‘t‘- test. The

findings revealed that the academic achievement and self-concept were not significantly

related. Significant relationship was observed with academic achievement of adolescents

having high and low self-concept. No significant difference was found between academic

achievements of adolescents belonging to high and low self-concept.

Wenz-Gross, Melodic Sipertein, Gary N (1998) the changes that occur in early

adolescence within almost every domain of the students life physical, social, educational

and familiar. Most of these changes are gradual and have different timetables and

magnitude for different adolescents. However, one change that has a predictable time

table for the entire peer group is the educational move into middle school. This change

brings with it increased academic demands and social challenges that can lead to stress

and adjustment problems for some adolescents. We believe that one group that is at

particular risk for stress and adjustment problems in middle school are students with

learning problems due to specific learning disabilities or mild mental retardation.

Students with learning problems come to the middle school period with history of

academic and social problems.

Sharma, Ram Paul (2000), Study of self-concept and mental health of male and female

physically challenged secondary students. The purpose of this study was to know the

educational interest and mental health of physically challenged students at secondary

78

level. The investigator selected 630 students randomly from various secondary schools in

northern area of Assam and used educational interest scale of H.M. Sing & S. Sing and

Mental health battery by Alpana Sengupta to know the educational interest and mental

health of physically challenged students. For the statistical treatment the investigator used

Mean, S.D and t-value. It was found that there is no significant difference between male

and female secondary students in their mental health and self-concept.

Rainer, S. Martin, P. (2000), A study of self-concept stress and academic achievement

of secondary school students in west zone of Assam. The investigator selected 640

secondary students to know the self-concept, stress and academic achievement. For

collection of data the investigator used self-concept scale by H.M sing and stress scale by

OM Prakash Srivastava and R.K Nadiu and past three years obtained marks from official

school records. The collected data were analyzed by using Mean. S.D and t-value. It was

found that the educational interest of male students is significantly different than female

students. The mean difference shows that male students have high educational interest

than female students. It was also found that female students have high stress than boys

but there is no significant difference between male and female students on their academic

achievement.

Jefferson (2000), Study of level of educational aspiration, educational interest of hearing

impaired orthopedically school going children of U.K. The Objectives of the study were

as; To study the self – concept and educational aspiration of hearing impaired and

orthopedic impaired school going children. To compare the different dimensions of

educational interest viz. real self, ideal self, reflected self and physical self of hearing

impaired and orthopedically impaired schools going children.

Methodology: The sample of the study comprised 125 hearing impaired and equal

number of orthopedic impaired children of class 7th and 8th. The investigator used

various sampling techniques and tools to draw results.

Major Findings: Hearing impaired and orthopedic children were showed no significant

difference on real self. Both the categories were insignificant on ideal self and physical

79

self. Hearing impaired and orthopedic impaired childern were also insignificant on level

of educational aspiration.

Kobal, Darja and Musek Janek. (2001), Study of educational interest and academic

achievement. of adolescents. The investigators tested the hypothesis that academic

achievement effects different components of educational interest. The sample comprised

of 230 students in the age range of 16-17 years. The authors investigated in the possible

influence of nationality (Slovenia, France) in modifying the relationship between

academic achievement and educational interest. The results of two factors (academic

achievement+ nationality) analysis showed significant correlation between academic

achievement and various indices of educational interest, which varied in a nationality-

dependent fashion. The French subjects exceeded Slovenians in some domains of self-

concept (i.e. verbal , academic relations with some sex peers relations with parents,

religion and spirituality and general self- concept) while Slovenian subjects exceeded of

French subjects in the domain of problem solving and creativity. There was no significant

difference between both national samples in self esteem. Also the French subjects

exceeded Slovenian pupils‘ in general academic achievement. The results were

interpreted on the grounds of theoretical expectations related to the formation of

educational interest and academic achievement as well as on the basis of national

differences in the school system and personality structure.

Seginer (2002), Family Environment, Educational aspirations, and Academic

Achievement in Two Cultural Settings. Tested a four-step model consisting of family

background, perceived parental support and demandingness, educational aspirations, and

cademic achievement. The model was estimated on data collected from working and non-

working women (N = 686) growing up in two cultural settings: transition to modernity

(Israeli Arabs) and Western (Israeli Jews). The results showed that family background

had direct and indirect effects on the academic achievement of Arab but not Jewish

women. The indirect family background- academic achievement path showed working

and non-working differences only for the Arab women viz educational aspirations for

girls and parental demandingness for boys and parental demandingness was directly

80

related to academic achievement of women. The study also explained ethnic and gender

differences in terms of demographic and socio-cultural conditions.

H. R. Shan & S. S. Schrawat (2003), Educational interest and level of educational

aspiration among physically challenged students. The Objectives of the study were;

1) To study the effect of total educational interest of various categories of physically

challenged high school students.

2) To study the effect of level of educational aspiration among various categories of

physically challenged high school students.

3) To study the relationship of gender and residence among various categories

various categories of physically challenged high school students.

4) To study the interaction effects of self-concept, its six dimensions and level of

educational aspiration, in combination with gender and residence of various

categories of physically challenged high school students.

Hypothesis: There exist significant differences between various categories of physically

challenged school students in relation to total educational interest and its six dimensions

viz. behavior, school status, physical appearance, attributes popularity, happiness and

satisfaction. And there exist significant differences among various categories of

physically challenged school students in relation to level of educational aspiration. There

exist significant two and three factors interaction effects of educational interest, its six

dimensions and level of educational aspiration, gender and residence of various

categories of physically challenged school students.

Sample: In this study, only hearing impaired, visually impaired and crippled students of

classes 9th and 10th (14+ age group) of secondary school, at least one from each district

out of 20 districts of Haryana State were taken up. The sample comprised of 1000

students: 499 (49.9%) boys and 301 (30.1%) girls. The sample included 211 (21.1%)

boys and 258 (25.8%) girls from urban area and 288 (28.811%) boys and 243 (24.3%)

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girls from rural area. It may also be mentioned that 533 (53.31%) of students were taken

from class 9th and 467 (46.7%) students were from 10th class. Thus, the sample was

fairly representative of population gender wise, residence wise and class wise.

Tools: Wallach-Kogan tests of creativity to measure creativity. Children‘s self-concept

scale (CSCS) constructed and standardized by Ahluwalia. And Level of Educational

aspiration Test developed by Patel.

Major Findings: The result shows that educational interest of urban various categories

of physically challenged school students was found to be more than the rural

counterparts. The results shows that socially, the different categories of physically

challenged school students with high level of educational aspiration and low level of

educational aspiration differ significantly from each other.

Enri Dumanhuri (2003), Evaluation of level of educational aspiration, academic growth

of physically challenged male students in Bandung metropolitan area of Indonesia.

Whole metropolitan area was surveyed for generating the data pertaining to hearing

impaired and crippled students below the age of 18 years. The data was treated in excel in

order to draw the conclusion. The main findings were showed that hearing impaired and

crippled students do not differ significantly on level of educational aspiration and

academic growth.

Gakhar, S. C. (2003), Educational interest and academic achievement of secondary

school students. The Objectives of the study were;

1) To study the educational interest of secondary school students.

2) To study the academic achievement of secondary school students.

3) To compare secondary school students on self-concept.

4) To compare secondary school students on academic achievement.

82

Hypotheses: Following hypotheses were assumed;

1) There exists significant difference among the secondary school students on

educational interest.

2) There exists no significant difference among the secondary school students on

academic achievement.

Sample: The study was conducted on a sample of 200 students of secondary schools

from two districts i-e Punjab (Patiala and Ferozepur). The sample comprised of 105 boys

and 95 girls. Self-concept scale (Ahlawalia, 1986) and academic achievement coefficient

of correlation and t-test were used as statistical techniques.

Major Findings: Secondary school students viz boys and girls were showed significant

difference on self-concept. Both the categories were insignificant on academic

achievement.

Chowdhury, Aparajita; Kumari Anita (2003), Study of academic achievement of

physically handicapped and normal children. The study was conducted on a sample of 30

children of physically handicapped studying in VIII and IX grades in school, of which an

equal number of normal children were included in the sample. The school was in a

predominantly middle class community area. The mean age of students was 13-15 years.

The results revealed that normal students showed better academic achievement as

compared to handicapped students.

Nabuzoka Dabie (2003) Teacher ratings were obtained of bulling and other behaviour of

121 children including 20 children with learning difficulties. Peer nominations were also

obtained for 55 of these (15 LD and 40 non LD). Correlations between teacher rating s

and peer nominations were significant for non-learning difficulties (non-LD) children but

not for children with learning difficulties (LD). Teachers and peers scored children with

LD higher on victim and sky behaviour and non-LD children higher on leadership and

co-operator behaviour. Bulling with shy and help seeking behaviours, while teachers

associated victims with fighting, being disruptive and being less co-operative. These

83

differences were related to the children LD status. Implications for substituting one

measure for another when assessing children at risk for adjustment problems, especially

children with LD are discussed.

Kumthekar, M. (2004), Comparative analysis of physically challenged and normal

college going students on self-concept and mental health. It revealed that educational

interest is an important indicator of personality. It was found that normal college going

students have a more positive self-concept as compared to physically challenged college

going students. To assess this, a Q- sort technique developed by Butler and Haigh (1954)

was used for 137 normal and 99 physically challenged college going students. The

significant difference was also found in mental health of both the categories, as mental

health supports to normal ones.

Gagandeep, S. J. & Verma B. K. (2004), A study of real self, ideal self and reflected

self of hearing impaired and crippled female adolescent students in southern part of

Ghawahati in India.For the conduction of present study, 30 visually impaired and equal

number of crippled female adolescents were selected randomly of different parts of

Ghawahati to investigate the real self, ideal self and reflected self. The collected data was

analysed by using different statistical techniques. It was found that there is no significant

difference on real self, ideal self and reflected self of visually impaired and crippled

female adolescents.

Ntzamilis G. & Haver (2004), Academic potential in mathematics among visually

impaired and hearing impaired elementary students in Athenes. For the present study the

researcher selected 30 visually impaired and 30 hearing impaired elementary level

students randomly from 42 elementary schools in Athenes to examine the achievement in

mathematics. The collected data were analyzed by various statistical techniques in order

to draw the relative permanent results. It was found that there is no significant difference

between visually impaired and hearing impaired elementary level students on academic

achievement in mathematics.

84

Behnke, et al. , (2004), Educational and Occupational Educational aspirations of Latino

male and female adolescents. Research conducted an in-depth interview of 10 male

adolescents of latino and equal number of female latino adolescents. The researcher

investigated their educational and occupational educational aspirations of male and

female adolescents and factors affecting their educational aspirations. Using a content

analysis of the interview scripts, it was found that male adolescents have high educational

aspiration level as compared to female adolescents.

Gasser, (2004), Contributions of Personality and Interests to Explaining the Educational

aspirations of College Students. This is the first study to investigate personality-interest

convergence by examining the newly revised 2003 California Psychological Inventory

with the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory. In general, the researchers found that those

personality scales and interest scales that were more related or applicable to educational

aspirations of male and female college students, were moderately correlated with level of

educational aspirations. Also, hierarchical regression result shows that specific

dimensions of personality and interests are related to female college students plans for

future work. The study found that components of male and female college students

personality and interest may relate to aspiring to higher levels of education.

Sangdeep, R. K., Sharama, S. (2004), A study of level of educational aspiration

academic achievement and self-concept of secondary school students in Eastern zone of

Nagaland. For the present study the investigator selected 430 boys and girl secondary

school students randomly from 10 secondary schools in Eastern zone of Nagaland to

study the self-concept, level of educational aspiration and academic achievement. For the

collection of data the investigator used level of educational aspiration test by V.P

Bhargava and self-concept scale by H.M Sing and past two years obtained marks from

official school records. The collected data were analyzed by using Mean, S.D and t-value.

It was found that both boys and girls secondary schools students have no significant

difference on all the three variables viz educational interest, level of educational

aspiration and academic achievement.

85

Stuart Breg (2004), A study of a self-concept level of educational aspiration, mental

health and academic achievement of normal and handicapped teenagers. Objectives

1) To compare the self-concept of normal and handicapped teenagers.

2) To compare level of educational aspiration of normal and handicapped teenagers.

3) To compare mental health of normal and handicapped teenagers.

4) To compare academic achievement of normal and handicapped teenagers.

Hypotheses: The hypotheses of the study are given below;

1) Handicapped and normal teenagers differ significantly on educational interest.

2) Handicapped and normal teenagers differ significantly on level of educational

aspiration.

3) Handicapped and normal teenagers differ significantly on mental health.

4) To compare academic achievement of normal and handicapped teenagers.

Sample: The sample consists of 230 handicapped and 230 normal teenagers. The data

was collected of about seven months during spring season in New Jersey of USA. The

investigator applied various statistical techniques in order to draw the relative permanent

results.

Major Findings: Handicapped teenagers differ significantly from normal teenagers on

self- concept. Handicapped teenagers differ significantly from normal teenagers on level

of educational aspiration. Handicapped teenagers differ significantly from normal

teenagers on academic achievement. And Handicapped teenagers differ significantly

from normal teenagers on mental health.

Sharma (2004) This study examined the personality characteristics of 180 boys and girls

of aged 8, 9 and 10 with learning disabilities (LD) in 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade in urban an

86

rural primary schools of Andhra Pradesh. India. The subjects were identified based on

their scholastic achievement on spelling dictation test, an oral reading test, a reading

comprehension test and an arithmetic test development specifically for the purpose, along

with mental ability tests- Ravens standard Progressive Matrices and Draw a man. An

adapted version of the children Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) was administered to

subject with learning disability and a comparison group of children without learning

disabilities. Examination of scores obtained by learning disabled and non-learning

disabled subjects on the CPQ portrays the learning and disabled child as having problems

in social and emotional adjustment.

Lily L. Dyson (2005). This study examined the global self –concept, academic self-

perception, social competence, and behavioral problems of 19 children with learning

disabilities within the family context. Comparisons were made between the target

children and their close-age siblings and family psychological correlates were identified.

The participants were administered child assessment scales and rated by their parents,

who also completed family psycho-social measures. The results show that although

children with learning disabilities do not differ from their siblings in global self-concept

and academic self-perception, their parents rated them to have less social competence and

more behavior problems than their siblings. Moreover, the social competence and

behavioral problems of children with learning disabilities are related to their parents

stress.

R. C. Vaishya (2005), Comparative study of male and female hearing impaired and

visually impaired students on level of educational aspiration and academic achievement,

a case study of Allahabad University. The sample of 20 male and 20 female students

having either hearing impairment or visual impairment were selected for the present

study. The data regarding the study were gathered in two stages over a period of 45 days

during mid day summer. In order to draw meaningful inferences, the data was treated

statistically by using various methods. The main finding was that both the groups do not

differ significantly on the different variables viz. level of educational aspiration and

academic achievement.

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Kumar Krish (2005), A study for observing academic achievement, its relation with

educational interest and level of educational aspiration of +2 handicapped and normal

students of Haryana State.For the purpose of present study the investigator collected the

sample of 75 handicapped +2 students and 75 normal +2 handicapped students from 48

institutions existing in different zones of Haryana. The statistical treatment was given in

excel, it was found that academic achievement is effected by educational interest and

level of educational aspiration. Both the categories handicapped and normal students

showed marked difference in educational interest and level of educational aspiration.

Macoy Krishna (2005), Normal and physically challenged students with relation to their

academic achievement tests. This study included about 330 ethnically diverse third

grades from 6 California public elementary schools. The researchers conducted

interviews in the fall and spring of the school year and the school provided test scores

from the students grade three academic achievement test (mathematic, reading and

language arts) which were administered in the spring. It was found that the normal

students shows high academic achievement then physically ones.

Chandra Rakish Koul Kabire (2006), Comparative analysis of visually impaired and

orthopedically handicapped children on academic performance, level of education and

level of educational aspiration in northern Assam.

Objectives: The objectives of the study were;

1) To study academic performances, level of education and level of educational

aspiration of visually impaired and orthopedically impaired children.

2) To compare academic performance, level of educational aspiration, level of

education of visually impaired and orthopedically challenged students.

3) To compare the visually impaired and orthopedic impaired on academic

performance.

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Major Findings: The result showed that no significant difference was found with respect

to level of educational aspiration and level of education of visually impaired and

orthopedic children.

The result also showed that no significant difference was found with respect to academic

performance of visually impaired and orthopedically impaired children.

Eve, Kikas Eve, Mottus (2006), Ability grouping in school, a study of academic

achievement in five schools in Estonia. The paper deals with the questions of the quality

of schooling and the effect of ability grouping on student‘s achievement. One hundred

and forty seven students from 5 schools participated in the study. Two schools one a

usual mainstream town school, one a usual rural school, one step by step school and one

elite private school. All children were studied twice, at the beginning of the first (age=7)

and third grade. At first children‘s cognitive abilities were assessed, and at second their

academic achievement in Estonian language and mathematics were assessed. Both the

battery of cognitive tests was developed specifically for this study. It was shown that

attending on elite private school was related to abilities and higher academic achievement

attending elite school had negative impact on achievement.

Raven, R. & Prince, A. (2006), A study of level of educational aspiration and stress of

elementary sighted and impaired children.

Objectives: The objectives of the study were;

1. To study the sighted children on level of educational aspiration.

2. To study the impaired children on level of educational aspiration.

3. To study the sighted children on stress.

4. To study the impaired children on stress.

5. To compare the sighted and impaired children on level of educational aspiration.

6. To compare the sighted and impaired children on stress.

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Hoptheses: Sighted and impaired children differ significantly on level of educational

aspiration. And Sighted and impaired children differ significantly on stress

Sample: The researcher selected 200 sighted children at elementary level and equal

number of impaired children (100 orthopedic and 100 hearing impaired) for the collection

of data, the investigator applied various tools in the form of questionnaire, psychological

tests and interviews etc. The collected data were analyzed by applying various statistical

methods in order to draw the infrances.

Findings: The investigator found that sighted children have more level of educational

aspiration than the hearing impaired and visually impaired elementary children. It was

also found that hearing impaired and visually impaired children have more stress than

sighted elementary children.

Judith Wiener (2007) this article reviews the literature on peer relations and social skills

of children with learning disabilities (LD). Two risk models are discussed. The single-

risk model suggests that for some children with LD, social skills deficits are inherent in

the disability. These deficits lead to problems with social relationships, which foster

internalizing behavior problems. The multiple-risk model suggests that internalizing and

externalizing behavior problems typically result when more than one risk factor is

present. These additional risks might include co morbid attention deficit/hyperactivity

disorder, poverty, English as a second language, inadequate educational

accommodations, and ineffective parenting. However, risk of behavior problems is

reduced if children with LD are able to establish healthy social relationships.

Hussain Akbar (2007), Educational interest of Physically Challenged Adolescents. In

order to ascertain the impact of disability on the development of educational interest the

study was designed to compare the level of educational interest among the physically

challenged adolescents with the normally developed peers. Altogether 90 school going

adolescents of grade IX and X aged 11-16 (30 in each category namely normal, blind and

Orthopaedically handicapped) were purposively selected from 3 different schools of

Delhi. Out of which 15 were males and 15 females in each category. Mohsin‘s

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educational interest Inventory was administered on each subject. On the whole the level

of educational interest among the physically challenged adolescents was found

significantly lower than their normal counterparts. Similarly the level of educational

interest among the girls was also found significantly lower than the boys in general,

where as category wise significant difference was found only in case of blind subjects.

Mohit Joshi (2008) A new study has found that learning disabilities are associated with

language problems later in life. For the study, the research team examined a group of 699

individual, 108 with primary progressive aphasia, 154 with Alzheimer's disease, 84 with

a related disorder known as front temporal dementia and 353 controls without dementia.

During their enrolment, participants completed a detailed demographic and medical

history interview that included two questions about whether they or immediate family

members had a history of learning disabilities. Team conducted a medical record review

for the 23 individuals with primary progressive aphasia who reported either a personal or

family history of learning disability. The researchers found that patients with primary

progressive aphasia were more likely to have had learning disabilities or a close family

member with learning disabilities than review of patients with both aphasia and learning

disabilities showed families with unusually high rate of learning problems, especially

dyslexia. The study suggests that some individuals or families may have an underlying

susceptibility to difficulties with the language network.

Verma Arti (2008), Study of Self-concept and Study habits of visually impaired and

Normal students. The aim of this research was to study the self – concept and study

habits of visually impaired and normal students. The investigator selected 100 college

students randomly from various colleges in West Bengal to know the self-concept and

study habits of visually impaired and normal students. The investigator used the self –

concept scale by Caplan & Naidu and study habits inventory by Gopal Roa. It was found

that there is a significant difference between both the groups in their self-concept and

study habits. The normal students have good study habits and the mean difference of self-

concept favours normal students.

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Alawode E.A. (2008), To study the influence of impairment on the academic

achievement of adolescents in secondary school.

Objectives: To find the effects of impairment on the academic

achievement. And to find the difference between male and female academic achievement.

Sample: The investigator selected 200 senior secondary students randomly from five

secondary schools.

Tools: The data were collected through academic records of the students from principals,

personal data, regarding their age, gender, impairment and type of homes they come

from.

Statistical analysis: The collected data were analyzed by using mean, t – test and

correlation.

Major findings: Results indicted that impaired children had significantly less academic

achievement as compared to the non-handicapped. The significant difference was also

found, between the academic achievement of males and females.

Roy Sharmistha (2008), A comparative study of factors affecting academic achievement

of school going adolescent boys and girls. The aim of the study was to determine some of

the selected influencing factors like daily routine of the students, tuitions, and content

viewed on television etc, affecting the academic achievement of school going adolescent

boys and girls. The factor groups of the study consisted of top 10 rankers both boys and

girls from class VII, VIII, IX, X, selected from two English medium schools in Gujarat.

Data was collected by the questionnaire method. Each respondent was made to fill the

questionnaire. Analysis was done by calculating frequency and percentages. Results

showed that there is not much difference in the importance of many of the selected

factors exhibited by boys and girls, which plays an important role in their academic

achievement.

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Chaudhary, Vineeta (2008), Impact of academic achievement on creativity. Seeked to

find out the correlation between academic achievement and creativity of the creative and

non-creative students. A sample of 500 high school students was taken from different

schools. A verbal and non-verbal test of creativity of Baquer Mehdi was administered.

Creative and non-creative students were categorized by applying Jalota‘s Mental Ability

Test. Scores of the final examinations were used as the academic achievement of the

students.

Singh, Ramesh (2008), Learning style preferences and academic achievement school

children. Explored the relationship between learning style preferences and academic

achievement of high school pupils. The sample of the present study were the 538 pupils

studying in class Xth in the schools /colleges situated in the urban and rural locality of

Dehradun district of Uttaranchal state. The data was collected by using learning style

Inventory and Record of Annual Examination. X2-values were calculated to find out the

relationship between learning style preferences. The following conclusions are being

drawn : (a) flexible, aural, short-attention span, non-motivation centered, learning-styles

preferences) have been observed to be positively affecting the academic achievement of

urban-pupils (both boys and girls), (b) Non-flexible, visual, non-motivation centered and

environment free learning styles (preferences) have been observed to be positively

affecting the academic-achievement of rural pupils (both boys and girls).

Reddy, Suvaranna Bhim and BL Hoovinbhavi (2008). The effect of study-habits

environment on the student‘s lifestyle. This empirical study on the study habits

environment forms a great portion which live a great impact throughout the life of an

student at pre-university level. The study habits with proper environment, feedback,

guidance helps the individual to develop his life style. It is this study habits in relation to

goof environment help the individual to develop the personality, which have great impact

on an individual Life i.e. from birth to death.

Bhatnagar, Mudita (2009), Effectiveness of technology in the classrooms. Studied the

effective use of technology in the classrooms. The roles of the teachers and students have

changed dramatically over the years. In the traditional model of education, the teacher

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was responsible for disseminating information to students. The student‘s primary

responsibility was to consume and retain as many of the facts and figures as they could.

In student-centric classrooms, the role of teacher changes to that of a facilitator and

resource person. Often acting as a catalyst, the teacher helps the student to promote his or

her individual learning. With the use of technology, the teacher can extend his or her role

beyond the classroom. Technology provides students with the opportunity via emails or

discussion forums to ask questions and also collaborate with other students in the

understanding of the course content. This use of technology virtually gives the student

access to the teacher at all times where they can ask and receive answer to their questions

without having to speak in front of a large group.

Chand, Suresh and Kulwinder Singh (2009), Socio-demographic correlation of

language achievement. Seeked to ascertain the relationship of socio-demographic

variable with that of language achievement. A sample of 861 sixth grade students

selected from 34 schools spread over four district s of Himachal Pradesh. Personal data

sheet and language achievement test developed and standardized by Suresh Chand (2002)

were used to collect the relevant data. Data obtained were analyzed by using t-test. The

result showed that (i) paternal and maternal education and occupation, family income and

family support in educational matter plays a facilitative role in language achievement of

secondary school students (ii) the non-existent gender and cast differentials in language

achievement points towards equality in language achievement, though moderate level,

(iii) urban conditions are more conducive in language achievement of elementary

students.

Chellamani, K. (2009). Acquisition of reading skill: the role of psycho-linguistic

principles in teaching –learning process. Explored the acquisition of reading skill.

According to this study all the four skills of language, reading is the higher order

communicative skill. Language teaching may not be the same as that of teaching any

language. A subject teacher should have mastery over that subject. Similarly a language

teacher to have on the psychology of learning and the latest trends on language learning.

In this line, psycho-linguistics principles were applied in teaching of language English

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focusing ‗reading‘ and a significant effect in reading comprehension was found among

students.

Dammani, Kiran and Kamakshi Agnihotri (2009), Effectiveness of concept mapping.

Attempted to study the effectiveness of concept mapping in terms of Understanding

Concepts of Educational Psychology. The Concept mapping is the strategy employed to

develop a Concept Maps. It is graphical tool for organizing and representing knowledge.

The present study was experimental in nature. It was employed pre-test post-test single

group design. Sample of 77 B.Ed. Students of Shri Gujarti Samaj B.Ed. College studying

in the academic year 2007-08 were selected by using Purposive Sampling technique for

teaching selected units of Educational Psychology.

Kirtika, Sheela Sangwan and Krishna Duhan (2009), Multiple intelligence of slow

learner young adolescents. They Seeked to assess the multiple intelligence of slow learner

young adolescents. Hundred children in the age groups of 12-41 years having IQ 76-89

were taken from the selected schools and were assessed for multiple intelligence. Results

revealed that more than 60 per cent of young adolescents had below average intelligence

in most of the aspects of multiple intelligence except in musical naturalistic and

mathematical intelligence. Above 75 per cent of the adolescents were in below average

category in interpersonal, linguistic and existential intelligences and only nearby 20 per

cent respondents performed average on these aspects.

Mahmoudi, Armin and Ningamma C Betsur (2009), Relationship between adjustment

and academic achievement. Examineed the relationship between adjustment and

academic achievement. Adolescence is a transitional period of one‘s life between

childhood and adulthood during which some important biological, psychological and

social changes take place. It is a period of storm and stress. Adolescents have to adjust

with their own changes in personality on one side and the changing socioeconomic

environment on the other side. Some adolescents find it difficult to adjust normally with

these changes and experience some problems, which are characteristic of this developing

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stage. Adolescent who display antisocial behavior in a variety of settings are at risk of

low academic achievement and school failure. As early as the age of school entry,

behavior problems are negatively correlated with verbal ability and reading readiness and

aggressive students in the primary grades are at elevated risk for grade retention and

special education placement. Hence an attempt is made to investigate the relationship

between adjustment and academic achievement among the student (IX) students.

Shalini, S Punia, S Balda and CK Singh (2009). Impact of home based intervention on

cognitive and language development of children. The study was conducted in Hisar City

of Haryana State. Multiple phase sampling procedure was used to draw the sample. For

assessment of language development of children Reynell Development languages Scale

and for assessment of cognitive development, Bayley Scale of Infant development was

used. The results reveal that at pre-testing stage both the groups were almost same in

cognitive and language performance. Whereas at 1st and 2nd post testing stage

significant differences were observed as experimental group performed much higher than

those of control group, which means the gain was higher in intervention group.

Penelope Ross (2009) studied that recent inquiries have demonstrated the health

inequalities faced by people with learning disabilities; and the reasonable adjustments

needed to overcome them. This is a practical guide to support may be general, analytical

or clinical diagnosis includes development of educational objectives assessing student

strengths and weaknesses; identifying factors contributing to difficulties; systematic

testing and analysis; planning; and assessing the validity of the diagnosis and the

effectiveness of corrective measures. Treatment must be based on diagnosis and be

individualized. The programme must be motivated the child, and materials and

instructional methods must be carefully selected. Continuous evaluations must be made,

steps teachers and parents can take to increase the efficacy of treatment are described.

Narimani Mohammad & Mousazadeh Tavakko (2010), Comparing self-esteem and

self-concept of handicapped and normal students. This research was conducted in order

to compare self-esteem and self-concept of handicapped and normal students. Statistical

analysis of this research comprised all the handicapped boy and girl students as well as

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the normal society included all the sighted students of age group10–20 years, who were

studying at Ardabil province high schools in 86 schools. 20 handicapped students (10 girl

handicapped and 10 boy handicapped) were selected randomly as a study group and 20

sighted students (10 girl handicapped and 10 boy handicapped) as a comparison group.

They were tested individually by two subtests of Coppersmith, self- esteem and self-

concept Beak & Stiller scale at their schools. The results of multivariate variance

(ANOVA) showed that there was different mean score between handicapped and normal

Students. As all the results proved that the function of the sighted group individuals in

self-esteem subtests was better than the handicapped. But the function of the handicapped

individuals in self – concept subtests was better than the handicapped.

Arrepattamannil, Shaljan (2010). Parenting practices parenting style, and children‘s

school achievement. This study drawing on data from the 2002 Survey of Approaches to

Educational Planning (SAEP), examined the predictive effects of parenting practices and

parenting style on children‘s school achievement, and the predictive effects of parental

expectations and parental beliefs on parenting style for 6,626 respondents with children

aged 5-18 years in Canada. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses, after controlling

for family socioeconomic status (SEES), revealed the substantial positive predictive

effects of family SEES, parental encouragement, parental expectations, and parental

beliefs on children‘s school achievement. In contrast, parental monitoring had a

substantial negative predictive effect on children‘s school achievement in the context of

other variables. Although parental expectations were not related to parenting style,

parental beliefs were positively associated with both parental encouragement and parental

monitoring – the two dimensions of authoritative parenting style.

2.3 OVERVIEW

Many studies have been reviewed under this section of review of studies. Some of them

were carried on cognitive strategies and some studies were on academic achievement of

special children specially lerning disabled children. Raven, R. and Prince, A. (2006)

revealed that the sighted children have more level of educational aspiration than the

hearing impaired and visually impaired elementary children. Vaishya (2005) found that

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both the groups viz hearing impaired and visually impaired students do not differ

significantly on level of educational aspiration and academic achievement. Kumar (2005)

revealed that the academic achievement is affected by self-concept and level of

educational aspiration, both the categories viz handicapped and normal students showed

marked difference in self-concept and level of educational aspiration. Gasser (2004)

found that components of adolescent are personality and interest may relate to aspiring to

higher levels of adolescents. Shah H.R. and Sehrawat S. S. (2003) found that there exists

significant difference among various categories of physically challenged secondary

school students on level of educational aspiration and self-concept. Jefferson (2000)

found that both hearing impaired and orthopedic school going children were insignificant

in relation to their educational interest and level of educational aspiration. Kulshreshtha,

R. (1985) found that promotion or demotion of the self-concept by peer relations in case

of both males and females remained different. Marthur, A. A. (1983) found that no

significant difference was found between crippled and normal children in academic

achievement, while as significant difference was found in their self-concept. The related

studies revealed that many LD children experience considerable social-emotional and

behavioral problems along with his learning difficulties which adversely affect their

adjustment. Compared to their normal peers, LD children are less adaptive, less flexible,

less social & less popular. In addition, LD children demonstrate disproportionate degrees

of inappropriate behavior and the reason is that they need different cognitive strategies

which are incompatible with learning in mainstream class. LD children have more

academic problems due to the backward cognitive strategies as non-disabled children get

provided which affect their adjustment & which disrupt their learning. Therefore,

knowledge of different kinds of cognitive strategies of LD children is indispensable to the

educators & who are responsible for the education and of the learning disabled.

The investigator did not find direct research on the topic. Only few studies are carried out

in the field of cognitive strategies among the learning disabled children.

However, the review of the above selected literature either Indian or of abroad give the

researcher a comprehensive understanding about her topic & provide a very sound and

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scientific based to the clearly specify her objectives and in finding out a general views

related to the topic. Above description of the studies suggests that an individual reading

practice, way of thinking and feeling, having, his home environment, family type & size,

school environment, classroom atmosphere, anxiety, teaching taught relationship all

determines the LD child's adjustment, which also effects their behavior, so adjustment, is

just not a uni-dimension. But a multi dimensional activity and is influenced by a number

of variables. So the students on cognitive strategies among the learning disabled children

and their attention achievement and their success have been the focus of attention in the

context of any social, psychological and educational researchers.

The present study is, therefore, an attempt to discover the importance of cognitive

strategies and its effects on academic achievement of teach disabled children, which

remain untouched among the early studies. So the effort were made by investigator to

study the relationship between cognitive strategies and it's effects on academic

achievement of learning disabled to identify the problem related to their adjustment in

academic, social and psychological areas.