CHAPTER - II

INDIAN POETICS AN APPROACH

67

We shall in this chapter trace the origin and development

of Indian Poetics with a. view to postulating a suitable theory or

theories for the study of Indian English Poetry in particular. Indian

Poetics, as we have already noted in our brief summary in Chapter I

( pp. 12-13) , is a synonym for Sanskrit Poetics. Hence the principles

and theories that govern the study of poetry must be sought within

the Sanskrit critical tradition.

A poem is a statement in a given language. In whatever manner

one tries to define poetry one is bound to start at the level of words

by which poetry is composed. So the search for the theories and

principles that direct the ,study of poetry also began at the level

of words in the Sanskrit tradition. The earliest known Sanskrit theore-

' 1 tician, Bharata Muni in his well-known work, the Niltya Sastra, made

the first known postulate of poetics by pointing out that words or

padas are of two kinds: one pertaining to prose or ciTrQa and the

1 cf: Manmohan Ghosh, 1 Introduction 1 , The Translation) (Calcutta, 1967), Vol.!, p. Ghosh gives the date of Natyasastra The date of Bharata Muni is not known.

, Natya Sastra, (English ixv. - Here Manmohan as 5th century B.C.

The Natyasastra of Bharata Muni is a treatise on Indian dramaturgy. It consists of 6000 stanzas, interspersed with prose passages, distributed over 36 chapters. It details the 11 elements of drama. They are rasa or aesthetic expe­rience, bhava or emotion, abhinaya or acting, dharmi or school of acting, vrthi or mode of expression, pravrthi or regional identity, siddhi or success of production, svara or musical note, atod ya or musical instrument, gana or song and ranga or stage. As these elements relate to drama, Bharata 1 s views of poetry which come under the Chapters VI, VII, XV and XVI are also conceived from the point of view of representation on the stage.

68

other pertaining to poetry or ni bandha. 2

Bharata explained that in prose, words are used loosely and

are not schematically combined, nor number or syllable regulated and

only those required for meaning are used. Whereas in poetry, words

are metrically arranged and consist of schematically combined syllables

3 which have feet and. which have their number regulated. Hence poetry

uses a rhythmic-type ( candah) of stanzas (vr,n.tas} . These candahs

which assume the form of different syllabic metres 4 have their bases

in words. Therefore, Bharata stated that there is no word without

rhythm and no rhythm without word and it is this union of word and

rhythm that constitutes dramatic composition. 5 Hence Bharata recognised

rhythm and harmony as essential ingredients of verse. He devoted

two chapters (XV and XVI) to the discussion of prosody and metrical

patterns. Further in Chapter XVII, where Bharata discusses the

language of verse composition, we find a specific attempt to describe

2 cf: Natyasastra of Bharat Muni, The Kashi Sanskrit Series (Critically edited with Hindi Commentary by Professor Babu Lala Sukhla Sastri) (Chaukhamba, Varnasi, 1978). vibhaktyantam padarb jeyarb nibandva ciirl)amevaca

(XV, 36). Reference to the Sanskrit verse, elsewhere is also based on this Kashi Sanskrit Series Text. The numerical number within the brackets refers to the line number in the text.

3~nibadva padam candastatha caniatak~aramu I

4

arthap ye~yak~rasytltam jeyarb ciirl)apadarb buddhaiah II nibaddhvak~arasamyuktam yaticchedasamanvitamu l nibaddhvantu padam jeyam pramal)anTyatatmakam II

(XV, 37-38) Bharata enumerated 26 varieties of meters ( candah) out of a possible number of 134217726 millions (XV,72-79) of varieties, on the basis of the number of letters in each line of a stanza.

5nanavrtavini spanna sabdasaisatanu smrta II candohinoh na sabdo~ti na c~ndah ~abdavargitamu J

evam tubhaya samyogah natyasyodhyotak smrtah II (XV, 42)

•

69

the language in terms of what are called its characteristics or

These characteristics embrace figures of .speech or

alailkara ( 43) , merits or g~a ( 95) and demerits or do§>a ( 87) . Bharata

enumerated thirty-six lakf?ru:ta-s, four alanktira-s, ten g~a-s and ten

do~a-s.

The thirty-six lakf?aJ)a-s are as follows: bhu~apa (ornateness) ,

ak~arasamghata (compactness) t sobha (brilliance) t udaharapa (parallelism),

hetu (causation) t samsaya (hesitation) t dristanta (favourable precedent} t . . prapti (discovery), abhipraya (fancy), nidar~ana (unfavourable prece­

dent), nirukta (convincing explanation), siddhi (persuasion), vi~e~ana

(distinction), glll}atiplHa (accusation of virtues), atisaya (excellence),

tulyatarka (inference from similitude) , padoccaya (multiplex prediction) ,

di§>!a (apt description), upadi~!a (pointed utterance), vicara (deli­

beration), viparyaya (inversion), bhramsa (slip of tongue), anunaya

(meditation), maHi (series of offers), dak~ipya (clever manners) ,

garhapa (censure), arthapatti (presumption), prasiddhi (celebrity),

prccha (interrogation), sarupya (identity), manoratha (indirect expression

of desire) , le~a (wit), samkf?obha (concealment) , gupakirtana ( enume-

ration of merits), anukta-siddhi (semi-uttered expression), priyokti

(compliment). 6 Bharata believed that these thirty-six characteristics

6Translation of all the 36 Sanskrit lines is tiy Manmohan Ghosh, op. c.-it., Reference for translation is also made, here as elsewhere, to The Natya~astra of Bharat Muni {Tr. into English by A Board of scho'lars) {Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, n,d.) and also to Nagendra, A Dictionary of Sanskrit Poetics {B.R. Publishing Cor., Delhi, 1987).

These 36 lak~aztas in proper and their role We shall see this theoreticians.

due time disappeared from poetics was assigned to alankara-s and gu~a-s.

development in connection with later

70

em beilish and beautify a play.

The four figures of speech, or alahkara, that Bharata mentions

are upama (simile) , rD.paka (metaphor) , dip aka (condensed expression)

7 and yam aka (rhyme) . Dealing first with upama, Bharata explained

that the comparison may be of one with another one, as in the example,

"Your face is like the moon", or of one with many, as in the example

"He has an eye like that of a vulture, peacock and hawk"; or of many

with one, <;iS in the example, "The stars shine like the moon"; or

of many with many, as in the example "The elephants are like the

clouds", (B.S., p. 245).

Bharata further explains that upama or simile is of five kinds,

viz., that of praise (prasamsa), censure (ninda), conceipt (kalpita),

uniqueness (sadsi), and partial likeness (kimcit sadsi). 8 The. following

are the examples of these five kinds of similes: 9

simile of praise: On seeing that large eyed maiden the king became

satisfied as though she was the personification of the spiritual achieve-

ment of the sages after a great deal of austerities.

simile of censure: The woman embraced that man devoid of every

good quality and having rough features, like a creeper in the forst

turning round the thorny tree in the forest burnt down by the forest

fire.

7 upama rupakacaiva ctipakain yamakam tatha I kavyasaitenyalankara cvatvara parikirtitah II

(XVII, 43)

8 Pra~amsa cai va ninda ca kalpita sad~i tatha kimcit sad~i njeya hadhapama pamcadha punah II

(XVII, 49)

9 cf: ,)_bJ..d., 50-54.

71

simile of conceit: Elephants proceeding ahead slowly and gracefully

and profusely exuding the ichor shine like moving mountains.

simile of uniqueness: What has been done by you today, with due

deference to another man 1 s mental inclinations is comparable to your

superhuman activities.

simile of partial likeness: Here is my lady companion. with the full

moon countenance, blue-lotos-like eyes and intoxicated elephants 1 gait.

The second figure of speech mentioned by Bharata, i.e. di"paka,

is defined thus: When words/phrases referring to different objects

are aggregated in a sentence on the basis of some one similarity that

is known as condensed expression. 10 It is illustrated as follows:

The lakes with wild geese, the trees with

flowers, the lotuses with intoxicated bees

and the party in the park of the woods,

gives that place beauty all the time, (XVII, 57).

The third figure of speech, i.e. , metaphor or rupaka is that

which is created with its own alternative has comparable elements

and some or little similarity (perceptible), and is expressed insepara­

bly. rr11 For instance, the following lines:

Lake-women (vapistriya) with their lotus-

faces, kumud (lily) -smiles, open and beautiful

nilotpala (blue-lotus)-eyes, and swans

10 nanadhikaranarthimam hbdanam sarbpradipakamu ekavakeyena samyuktam tadipakamihocyate ,,

{XVII, 56) 11

svavikalpena racitam tulyavayavalak~a!lamu I kincitsact~yasampannam yacta ri!pain rupakantutatu II

{XVII, 57)

72

crackling in the pond , seem to be calling

one another ( XVII , 59 ) .

Bharata explains the figure of speech yamaka, as an embelish-

ment born out of repetition of words at the beginning of the feet and

12 other places . He then goes on to define ten kinds of yamaka and

gives illustrations from poetry. On examination we find that in all

these illustrations, the beauty of expression lies in repetition, whether

of a syllable or of a word, sometimes at the beginning, sometimes

in the middle and sometimes at the end of a foot, or of all the feet. 13

In addition to these embellishments Bharata recommends the 'i .•

14 following ten gw:a-s or merits to the composer of a play. They

are:

1. ~le§a (XVII, 96) which is defined in a two-fold way. Thus

it involves the coalescence ( Sli~}a) of words connected through

meanings. In apprearance the coalescence looks well-knit~

b .&. d e com prehene 1\

(vicaragraha~) by but it has means of to

a subtle perception .

. 2. prasada (XVII, 97) involves the employment of simple words

and meanings easy to comprehend (sukha~abdartha samyogatu).

3. samata (XVII, 98) consists in evenness of expression.

12sabdabhyasastu yamakam padadi~u vikalppitamu vi~esadadanandisya gadato me nibodhata 11 • {XVII, 60)

In

13 By way of illustration the following stanza may be noted:

pa~ya pa~ya rama~asya me gu~anu yena yena va~angam karoti mamu {XVII, 75)

This is an example of the sand~!a-yamaka, where two words at the beginning of a foot are similar.

14 sle~ahprasadah samatasamadhih madhuryamojah padasaukumaryamu arthasya ca vyakttTrudarata ca kantisca kavyasya gu~ada~aite

{XVII, 95)

73

it alankara as well as gm:a are present in equal measures

and contribute each other to the beauty of expression.

4. samadhi (XVII, 99) - In it there is the presence of that

distinguishing ~meaning which is understood by ·men of critical

discernment ( abhiyuktairvi~e~astu).

5. madhurya (XVII, 100) - By this merit a sentence heard many

times over does not produce weariness or disgust.

6. ojah (XVII, 101) Where the composition is characterised

by the use of varied, striking and brilliant compound words,

having letters agreeable to one another, there the ojas merit

is present. It is also present where there is richness of

word ·and meaning and where a censured (hin) object becomes

an object of exaltation ( udattavabhasakah).

7. saukumarya involves the use of words that are not· harsh­

sounding, but characterised by tenderness, and consists of

an equally agreeable sense marked by delicacy. 15

a: arthavyakti (XVII, 103) involves explicitness, in which the

9.

description of the nature of things are given as they appear

in the world, by means of common and familiar words. In

it the meaning is apprehended as soon as the word is given.

udarata (XVII, 104) It consists of an exaltedness which

is marked by descriptions which are capable of evoking the

sensitive sentiment as well as the marvellous feeling. It

15 sukhapr: ayojyaiaryacchabdairyuktam su~li~tasandhi bhi I sukumararthsarb yukttam saukumaryaiin . taducyate II

(XVII, 102)

74

is also characterised by an exceeding refinement::,:; of speech

( stiktaih) and also by the presence of charming sense ( ci tartai)

marked by elegance (sau~tavasamyuttaih).

10. kanti (XVII, 105) - That com position in which the loveliness

wrights.

is realised by graceful movements, contributing to the awakening .·

of the sensitive (:!:!{ngara) feeling, thereby delighting the

mind and the ear (yanmanah srotra vi~ayamahHidayati).

Bharata has enumerated ten demerits to be avoided by play-

They are: gi1~artha (obscurity) , arth'rlntara (digression) ,

arthahina (meaning-lessness) , bhinnatha (obscenity) , ekartha (tautology) ,

abhiplutartha (incoherence) , nyayadapeta (illogicality) , vi?ama (anomaly) ,

, 16 visandhi (hiatus) and sabdacyuta (slang).

However, Bharata looked upon these elements viz. , lak~~a,

alank'ara, g~a and do~a a~ mainly decorative devices which served

the most important purpose of awakening .'rasa' or aesthetic experience

without which Bharata stated that there can be no sense of poetry

I nah.i JtMad hte k.Mc.i.dM.tha.h pJta.va.Jtta.te., VI, proseline following verse

32). Bharata explains 'rasa' as that which is relished (MVada.tfa.rtt.i ma.rtMCi

, VI, 34). Bharata illustrates that just

as ~ person eating food cooked with many ingredients is able to relish

the taste of the food, so too a cultured person ( sumanasah puru~a,

VI, prose following verse 32), watching a performance is able to relish

the taste -of the basic emotion ( sthayibhava) presented on the stage

16 guQarthmarthantaramarth~hin bhinnarthamekarthama bhipl u tar thamu nyayadapetam vi~amam visanthi sabdacyutam vai ctasa kavyado~a II

(XVII, 87)

75

with the assistance of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhicari. 17 In order

to understand the position of rasa in Bharata' s context, it is imperative

to know the exact nature of sthayibhava, vibhava, anubhava and

vyabhicari·.

sthliyibhava

Bharata envisages the existence of some permanent, innate

emotions in human nature and these he calls sthayibhava-s (VII, prose-

line after verse 7) • According to his own statement, these sthayi bh'avas,

which are eight in number, viz., rati (love), hasa (laughter), ~aka

(grief), krodha (anger), utsrtha (courage), bhaya (fear), jugupsa (dis-

gust) ·and vismaya (wonder),, when reinforced by various other bhavas

attain the blissful state of rasa. 18 Bharata also states that the sthayi­

bhava-s are the basis of rasa and are supreme among all the bhavas,

which are forty-nine in number. 19 He illustrates that just as a king

is supreme among men, so is the sthayibhava supreme among all

bh- 20 avas. This sthayibhava then, constitutes the principal theme

of a composition,

vibh1:tva-s

The vibhava-s are the stimuli that activate an emotion. These

stimuli are of two kinds - human and environmental. The Sanskrit

17vibhavanubhavavyabhicaris~yogadra sani~pattih (XVII, 32) 18

nanabhavopa gataapi sthayino bhava rasatvamapnuvantiti I (VI proseline after verse 32)

19tatra§tau bhavah sth~yinah trayastrim~adravyabhicarinah 1 a~tau satvika iti bhectah I evamete kavyarasabhivyttihetava eknapncasadbhavah pratyavagantavyah I

20tatha naranam nrpatih . evam hi sarvabhavanam

(VII, 6) si~yapahca yata guruh I bhavah s thayTmahan i ha 11

(VII, 8)

76

theoreticians who carne after Bharata, classified them as alambana

21 and uddipana. Alambana is the object which is responsible for

activating the dormant emotion. For instance in the case of sth~yibh~va.

rati, the beloved is the ~lam bana. The beloved is responsible for

the arousal of the emotion of love. The external factors such as

the spring season, the rnoon-11 t night, the soft breezes, the fragrance

of flowers etc. I become the. uddipana, as they help to ·enhance the

emotion of love to develop further.

anubhava-s are the external manifestations of the emotions evoked

or excited bjl the vibhava-s. They suggest and indicate the effect

brought upon the characters after . the emotions have been evoked.

Bharata explains that anubh§va is so called because it makes the

spectators feel or experience the effect of abhinaya by means of words I

gestures and sattva. 22

vyabhidiri

In addition to the eight permanent sthay~bnava-s or emotions,

there are thirty-three subsidiary and transient emotions and eight

mental states (sattvika) 23 which accompany them. Bharata explains

21 cf: 1 Da~arupa of Dhananjaya 1 in Manjul Gupta, A Study of Abhivanabharati (Gian Publishing House, 1987), p. 235.

22athanubhava iti kasm~tu cyate -anubhavyatehanena vagngasatvakrtohabhinaya iti

23 • (VII, 4) Sat tva means inner essence of mind. Sat tvikabhava-s are the involuntary manifestations of emotions that result due to the intensity of emotions in the mental plane, The eight sattvikabhava-s are, sveeda (perspiration), stambha (torpidity), ramanca (horripilations), svarabhanga (change in tone), vipathu (trembling), vaivar~ya (discolouration), a$ru (tears) and pralaya (swoon). (VII, 93)

1

77

that the vyabhicari is so called because they move in relation to

the principal emotions and help it to emerge as rasa. 24 The vyabhicari

-s do not themselves develop as rasa, they only serve the purpose

of enlivening the sthayi. For instance, a person in love may experience

apprehension, anxiety, joy, melancholy and so on. But all these

emotions are only transitory and disappear once the sthayi is awakened.

Bharata enumerates them as follows:

nirveda (despondency) , gHini (weakness) , I

sanka (apprehension)' asuya (envy)' mada (into-I

xi cation) , srama (weariness) , alasya (indolence) ,

dainya (depression) , cinta (anxiety) , moha

(distraction) ' smrti (recollection) ' dhfti

(contentment) , vr!da (shame) , capalata (inconsistency) ,

har~a (joy), avega (agitation), ja9ata (stupor),

garva (arrogance) , vi~ada (despair) , autsukya

(longing) , nidra (sleep) , apasmara (epilepsy) ,

supta (dreaming), vibodha (awakening), amar~a

(indignation), avahittha ugrata (cruelty), mati

(assurance) , vyadhi (sickness) , unmad (insanity) ,

marava (death)' trasa (fright)' and vitarka (deliberation)·

(VII, 28-29 )

Thus according to Bharata it is the llilion of the sthayibhava-s

with vibhavas (the stimuli), anubhava-s (the consequent manifestation)

24 yatha surya idam dinam nak~atram va nayatiti

(VII, 27) (Tr.) Just as the sun carries the star and the day on its revolutionary path, in the same way the vyabhidiri moves with the sthayi (gatyarthau thatuh vivithamamimukhyena rasesu carantiti vyabhidirinah). • •

78

and vyabhicari-s (the transient emotions) that leads to the realisation

of rasa. The eight rasa-s corresponding to the eight sthtiyibhava-s

are as follows:

~p'lgara (sensitive) , hasya (humorous) , karll{la (pathetic)

raudra (furious), vira (valorous), bhayanaka (horrific),

bTbhatsa (repugnant) and adbhuta 25 ( wonderous) .

So in the ultimate analysis we may say that the sthayibhava

or the permanent emotion in a piece of composition is the basis of

rasa, the essence of which lies in asvada, or relish by the audience

When the vibhava-s, anubhava-s and the vyabhicari-s unite to awaken

the s thayi, it emerges as rasa . This is, thus, an outline of the theory

as originally propounded by Bliarata. We may now end our study

of Bharata 1 s introduction into poetics by noting that "the systematic

study of poetics developed out of the theories of Bharata ".26 So let

us ·now look into these developments that took place within the critical

tradition of India.

Although Bharata has analysed and classified the different

elements of a kavya, viz. , candah, lak~al)a, alahkara, gu~;ta, do~a

rasa, elaborately and illustratively, he did not resolve them into

a unified theory of poetry . This was to be expected as Bharata 1 s

primary concern with the elements of a ka"vya were only in so far

as they served to illumine the drama. As a result that peculiar

25 sp1garahasya karul}a raudravrra bhayanakah I b'ibhatsadad bhutasanjau cetya~tau natye rasah sm:tah /1 (VI, 16)

To this list, later theoreticians added ~ninth rasa, called santa (quiestistic devotion). Its sthayibhava is "attachment towards God or some deity or godhead". Hence this rasa is close! y associated with 'Bhakti rasa' or devotional relish. cf: R.S. Tiwari, A Critical Approach To Classical Indian

26 Poetics (Chaukham bha Orientalia, Varanasi, 1984) p .129. Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Alex Preminger (ed) (Macmillain, 1974), p. 383.

79

27 power by which ordinary speech is converted to poetic speech

remained undefined . In an effort to find .. _ ·an explanation for this

extraordinary· power of poetry, there arose four main schools of criti-

cism in Sanskrit poetical tr~dition, spanning a period from the sixth

centry A.D. to the eleventh century A.D. They may be classified

as, The Alailkara School, The Rasa School, The · Dhvani School and

The Vakrokti School. The Alankara School concentrated on the figura-

ti ve language of poetry, viz. alankara or figures, glll)a or qualities

and riti or style. The Rasa School analysed the emotional content

of a poem. The Dhvani School analysed the meaning in a poem, and

the Vakrokti School studied the poet 1 s art through an all inclusive

analysis of the constitutive devices in a poem. We now give separate

brief exposition of these different schools of criticism with a view

to understand how each school formulated a specific theory of poetry.

The Alarudira School

The opinions of this school centred around the assumption

that a poem 1 s status is a function of . its language. A poem is seen

as essentially a linguistic object, which employs a certain type of

21 cf: Abercrombie, The Idea of Great Poetry (London, 1925), p. 47:- "The power of using words so as to produce in us a sort of enchantment; a power not merely to charm and delight but to kindle our minds into unusual vitality, exquisitely aware both of things and the connection of things", or what Bhamaha would call "The transactions of the past and the future described as if taking place before our eyes". (Kavya-Alankara (Ch. III, 53) ( In6}(a., p.8lh'he Alankara School}',

80

language characterised by a range of constituting ornamental devices.

The critics aligned to this school of criticism therefore concentrated

on a systematic analysis of the language of poetry. It was a question

of whether, ultimately the impact of a poem can be explained entirely

in terms of its linguistic features.

The word 'Alankara' 28 literally means 'decorations.' or 'em bel-

lishments' . It at once implies the restriction of poetics to the language

of poetry or what may be called as 'kavya-sarira' 29 or 'body of

poetry' . Hence the definition of poetry as 1 l,a.bdM.tha.u .oah..i.tya.u k.iivyam 1

(Bm., I, 16). In other words poetry is the union of 's'abda' or sound

and 'artha' or sense. When Sabda and artha are made charming

by means of certain modes of expression, they attain the position

of poetry. Hence the critics of this school concentrated on analysing

the different modes of expression, viz., alankara or figures of speech,

g~a or qualities and riti or style, in order to discover the animating

principle of poetry. Hence within the Alankara School were formed

three different theories of poetry based on alankara or figure of

speech, gtl\la or qualities and rTti or style. Let us briefly study

these different theories.

Alankara

We find a definite scheme of poetics based on alankika or

figures of speech worked out in a systematic and elaborate manner

28

29

cf: S.K. (2nd ed) alank!ua itself, as

I n6Jta.. ,

De, History of Sanskrit Poetics (Calcutta, 1960), vol. 2, p. 33,

(lit., embellishment) applied to well as to the poetic figure ... "

p. 96.

(in 2 vols.) ·- "The word

the discipline

81

for the first time by Bhamaha (6th cen. A.D. ) in his work, Kavya-

l . k- 30 an ara. In other words Bhamaha believed that the essential strength

of poetry lay in the figurative expression. As the usual way of

expression is not intense enough to produce any poetic effect, some

sort of strikingness in sound as well as in sense is necessary to

convert ordinary speech into poetic speech. For instance_, if we take

the figurative expression "the country rejoices", we notice that in

ordinary speech the sentence construction will be "the people of the

country rejoices". But in order to give it a poetic turn, an artistic

arrangement of words is made and hence "the country rejoices". In

the example cited above the artistic turn of expression is achieved

by the employment of the figure of speech called rupaka31 or metaphor.

In the expression 1 the country rejoices 1 , the up amana, 1 country 1 is

imposed on the upameya, 1 the people 1 , and the identity has been

, assumed although there is no actual identity. By similar use of diffe-

rent figures of speech it is possible to bring about artistic turns

of expressions in a variety of ways. Bhamaha designated this artistic

turn of expression as 1 vakrokti 1 , and stated that vakrokti may be

30 Translated into English with notes by T.V. Naganatha Sastry (Tanjore, 1928).

31 cf: R.S. Tiwari, op. c-it., p. 189:- "Rupaka materialises where the upama (object compared with) is fully imposed on the upameya (object compared), obliterating all apparent distinction between the two". It has to be remembered that the difference between the upameya and the upamana ... in Rupaka... achieve identity... despite their basic difference".

82

traced in all alankaras, and it is this that rendered poetry beautiful. 32

Thus vakrokti became the animating principle underlying all figures

I of speech, both of sabda or sound and artha or sense.

Hence Bhamaha classified alailkara-s into Sabdalailkara or figure

of sound and arthalankara or figure of sense. The sabdalankara-s

viz., 33 anupra"sa (alliteration) and yamaka (rhyme) are a source of

poetic charm. There is beauty in the rhythmic echo of sound itself

and must be associated with the sense. of music. 34

Bhamaha enumerated about three dozen arthalankara-s in his

second and third chapters. To the figures of sense mentioned by

Bharata, viz., rtipaka, dipaka and upama, Bhamaha adds the following

figures of sense :

ak9epa or insinuation is where one seems to supress (prati~edha) what

one actually intended to say, in such a way as to emphasise it more.

For instance, in order to suggest the intended meaning "I am going

to die", one wil say "If I do not see you even for a single moment

I begin to have a (great) longing" (II, 68-69) .

vyatireka or contrast, is a comparison designed to show the great

32 Sai~a sarviva vakroktiranayarthau vibhavyate 1 yantosyafu kavina karyah koalam karoanaya vina If ( Bm., II, 85 ).

33 Bh:tmaha defines anupr'a:sa as that in which similar letters are employed ( sarupavart;laVi nyasamanuprasarh. II. 5). It may be noted, this figure is a new addition to those men-tioned by Bharata in his Na~yasastra, .6upJta.., p. 5).

34 ct: Y.K. Patki, 'Function of Language in Poetry: and Indian Approaches' in G. S. Amur, et. al., ( ed). on Comparative Literature and Linguistics (Sterling New Delhi, 1984) p. 23.

Western Essays Pub.,

83

superiority of the thing spoken of, over that with which it is compared.

For instance, the example: "Your eyes with eye-lashes are both black

. and white and bright as copper; whereas the white lotus and blue

lily are either entirely white or blue" (II, 75-76).

atisayokti: Bhamaha associates this figure of speech with his principle

of poetry, viz. , vakrokti. 35 Thus Bhamaha defines atisayokti as

"where something transcending ordinary experience is described" (II, 81)

and explains that it is by "connection with some superior quality" such

descriptions arise (II, 84). Later Bhamaha identifies this superior quality

or gill}a as • Bhavika • (III, 73). He defines 1 Bhavika' thus: "In it transac-

tions of the past and the future are described vividly, i.e., as if

taking place- before one's eyes". An instance of atisayokti Bhamaha cites

is as follows. "The tree saptacchada, being rendered invisible, by moorr

light which is of the colour of its bloom, is inferred by the hum of

bees" (II, 83) . Another example is that of a description of women sporting

in water. Their garments are so thin and white that they look as

if water had shed its skin like the snakes (II, 83) .

utpre:;;ka or fancy, involves the poet • s imaginary activities, where

objects having no common quality between them are brought under a

current of resemblance by the common quality of action (II, 91). For

instance, the following lines Fire (forest fire) as if pretending

to be red kimsuka flowers, climbs to the top of the trees to see

how much of the forest is burned and how much unburned (II, 91) .

The remaining arthiilankara-s accepted by Bhamaha are given

in one group (III, 1-4). First is preyas (III, 5) or affectionate speech

35 ct: Bhamaha, op. ci .. t., p. 46 - Vakrokti as a peculiar method of ex press ion. 1 nnJta.., School' , p. 111.

is here defined 'The Vakrokti

84

as that expressing. delight on welcoming a friend. The second figure

rasavat (III, 6) expresses the sensitive rasa, viz. , the srftgara (It

is clear from Bhamaha' s inclusion of this figure as an alankara, that

he does not consider that rasa is invariably present in a poem. Rasa

is rendered apparent by alankara. Hence what must be present in

a poem is vakrokti or imaginative speech) . The other figures asso­

ciated with rasavat are tirjasvin (III, 7) and udatta (III', 12). In

urjasvin improper bhavas and rasas are brought in. Whereas in the

figure udatta, the exalted rasa, as for instance through the character

of Rama {an avatara), is brought out.

Next, the figure paryayokta (III, 8) is mentioned by Bhamaha.

It involves the concealing of a blunt statement. For instance Krishna

says he does not want food unless learned Brahmins have first partaken

of it, suggesting his piety, though it is a precaution against being

poisoned.

Bhamaha has the same definition for the figures rupaka and

sli~ta (Slesa) (IV, 15). It occurs when a word having two meanings

expresses their identification through suggestion although there is

no actual resemblance· between the two objects.

The figure apanhuti {III, 21) or suppression, occurs when

the reality is suppressed in favour of something imagined. For instance,

the sound of the bow of the God of Love is conveyed through the<

hum of a swarm of bees {III, 22) ~

in this figure.

There is a partly hidden simile

The figure vise~okti (III, 23) involves contrast or paradox,

when for instance, despite the loss of one quality, another that remains

85

proclaims the distinction of the subject. For example note the following

lines: "He the Flower-armed one (God of Love) single handed, conquers I

the three worlds. His strength was not destroyed by Siva, though

he succeeded in destroying his body". (III, 24) .

The figure virodha (III, 25) expresses the distinction of

the subjec~ by expressing a quality or action of the subject, contra-

dietary to another of its actions. Thus "the army-front although

cool on account of the shade of the adjoining garden is able to make

(your) enemies hot ( uncomf art able) although they are situated at a

distance. (III, 26) .

Comparison is also the basis of the figure tulyayogi ta (III, 27) .

The object here is to suggest similarity in quality. The figure vya-

jastuti (III, 31) describes the wonderful achievements of heroes so

as to reflect the absence of these accomplishments in the person being

censured. For instance note the following line: "Rama split the seven

sala trees, Paraswarama broke down the mountain Krauncha. What have

you done to resemble them, even to a hundredth degree?" The figure

nidarsana (III, · 34) indicates a special meaning through some action.

For instance,are the following lines: "The sun is about to set, his

lustre diminishes, this teaches fortunate men that rising is for the

purpose of falling".

In the figure sahok ti (III, 3 9) two actions · are a ttri bu ted

to two objects by using a single expression. For instance, "Nights

lengthen with love... Nights in which the cardinal points are obscured

by the fall of the dew and which stimulate ardent em braces." In the

figure parivrtti (III,41) an advantageous exchange is made, by gaining

something excellent by a sacrifice of another inferior thing.

86

by distributing wealth to the needy he amassed the wealth of fame.

The figure sasandeha (III, 43) is a form of praising, expressed in

the nature of doubt, through finding a difference between the object

and that with which it is compared. For instance, note the following

lines: "Is this the moon? No. For he does not shine during the

day. Is he the one with flower arrows? (God of Love). No. For

his bow is not made of flowers. Thus although out of wonder I try

to investigate, I am unable to come to a conclusion" . (III, 44).

In the figure. ananvaya (III, 45) the intention is to suggest that there

is no real similar! ty. Thus note this example: "Your face is only

yours and can be com pared only with itself." (III, 46) .

Bhamaha is not against mixing of various figures. On the

contrary it is recommended so that a poem might gain in beauty and

charm through such ventures. Thus the figure utprek~avayava (III, 47)

consists of the mixing of Sle9a, utprek~a and riTpaka. For instance

note the following lines: "Day-time which has the same beginning and

end with the Sun, finding the Sun going towards setting seems to enter

the room of darkness, for repose, being fatigued. n 36 Another figure born

out of mixing of various figures is samsr~ti (III, 49) .

the figures mixed are upama' sle9a and vyatireka.

In this case

For instance,

"a king distinguished by dignity and dexterity and possessed of gems"

is compared to an ocean full of aligators. Here while comparing,

at the same time the difference between the two is also shown. Bhamaha

finally ends his enumeration of arthalanka:ra-s with the figure §~iripi

36 Here utprek~a is suggested in the likeness, rtipaka in 1 the room of darkness' and sle9a in rising and . setting of sun­rise (see Naganatha Sastri 1 s explanation, p. 65).

87

(III, 55) . This figure is employed in cases in which nothing is said

to detract from friendliness. For instance note the following lines:

"Abandon your anger towards this your friend. Embrace with sympathy

him who is prostrate. Just as a big cloud pours timely showers

on the hill Vindhya (him) bathe you with (his) glad tears." (III, 56) .

These set of three dozen figures 37 became the basis of subse-

q~ent discussion by a series of critics.

Bhnmaha does not attach much importance to gupas or qualities.

He notes only three of the ten glll)a-s mentioned by Bharata. They

are madhurya (II, 3) or sweetness, prasada (II, 3) or clarity and

ojah (II, 2) or power. However, Bhamaha was of the opinion that

"talented people desirous of attaining sweetness and cleverness do

not employ" ojah (II, 2).

In the final analysis we may conclude by noting that the

most important factor in terms of which Bhamaha finds necessary to

judge poetic beauty is a striking mode of speech, together with a

cleverness of ideas, expressed through the employment of alaii.ka:ra-s.

Let us now briefly study the theory of poetry based on gu.Qa-s

or qualities .

Gun a . The chief promoter of gul)a-s or qualities in poetry was DanQ.in

37 There are some features of the figurative expression which are not included here. They are. samasokti (II, 59) or condensed statement, hetu, suk~ma and le~a (II, 86) as they "are not accepted as alankara-s because the sum total of the meaning involves no picturesqueness in statement" (II, 86).

i I.

88

(6th century A.D.). - I 38 In his work the Kavyadarsa, Dandin makes the

presence of gUIJ.as in a poem, and not alankara-s, as the absolute locus

of literariness . However, Dan din does not give a general definition

of guQa. He lays dowri that:

§lef?8.h prasadah samata madhuryam sukumarata

arthavyakt!r udaratvam ojah-kanti samadhyah

i ti vaidarbha margasya pr8.Qadasa gUQah smrtah 39

In the verse cited above Dangin mentions ten gu~a-s which follow

those of Bharata, in their number and nomenclature. They are des-

cribed by Dangin as the 'life-breath' ( pranadasa) of the vaidarbha . marga or Southern style. 40 It may be assumed that by this designation

-Dan<fin sets the standard of poetic speech, itself. Hence the qualities

mentioned above may be taken as the factors that govern poetic language.

The g~a-s enumerated by Dan<fin above as follows: 41

~li»ta (I,43) or coherence is found in a composition well-

38our reference throughout is to the literal translation by S.K. Belvalkar (Oriental Book, Poona, 1924).

39 Quoted in P.C. Lahiri, Concept of RTti and GuQa in Sanskrit Poetics (Oriental Books, New Delhi, 1974) p. 59.

40 c~: A.K. Warder, Indian Kavya Literature, Volume I (Motilal Banarasi Das, De,lhi, 1972) P. 95: Here A.K. Warder is of the opinion that Dandin himself was a Southerner from Karici and so he preferred to keep the name vaidarbha. In fact 'Vaidarbha' does not mean that the region has any effect upon poetry, but it is so called by reason of the fact that the particular style in its true form is considered to stand for standard good poetry.

41The translation of the Sanskrit as well here, are based on Belvalkar, op. ut., and A.K. Warder, Op. c...i.t.

as the enumeration . Lahiri, op. oi.t.,

89

knit and faintly-aspirated (alpapriii,la) syllables. The gw:a, prasada

(I, 45) is the excellence which conveys a sense which is well-known

(prasidhartha) and easily understood (pratitisubhaga).

Samata (I, 47) is .evenness of syllabic structures. For instance, if

a passage begins with soft syllables it must end similarly. This

gw:a may be of three kinds' viz. ' soft ( mrdu) ' harsh ( sphu1a) and

mixed ( madhyama) , arising from the grouping together of soft, harsh

or mixed letters (I, 4 7) . Madhurya (I, 51) or sweetness consists

in the production of rasa42 in sound or sense (vacivastung api

rasathitih (I, 51). In sound, the gll{la consists in repetition of sounds

belonging tO the Same SfUti 1 and in Sense I the glll)a COnSiStS in avoiding

vulgarity (agramyatva).

The gw:a, sukumarata (I, 69) or tenderness consists in the

absence of harshness due to the use of soft syllables (ani~thurak~ara-

pray am, I, 69) . The gUI,la, arthavy'akti (I, 7 3) is explicitness of

meaning. Here, unlike that in the glll)a, prasada, words are used

in such a way that inter-connection of ideas is apprehended literally _

and there must not be the expectation of further words to complete

the sense. The g~a, ud~rtha (I, 76) consists in an enhanced or

exalted sense. Thus upon the recitation of a verse, a certain elevation

is experienced. This elevation lends excellence to poetry.

(I, 80) or floridity, conveys strength through the super-abundance

of compound words. Kanti (I, 85) or grace is politeness in speech

42 cf: S.K. De., op. c.-i.t.,P. 137. fn: Here S.K. De is of the opinion that in Dandin's treatment rasa does not involve the technical sense in which it is used by Bharata, but should be taken as a factor providing pleasing poetic flavour generally, for Dandin divides rasa into vag-rasa and·· vastu­rasa.

90

without any fantasy of' exaggeration. Sam ad hi (I, 93) consists in the

transference of the qualities of one thing to another. For instance,

as when speaking of flowers with words appropriate for eyes. Dandin

speaks of three cases, viz., (i) superimposition (adhyasa, I, 94)

of the action of one object on another: (ii) transference of the original

sense or a word to a secondary sense ( gaUIJavri tti vyapa~rayam, I,

95) for the sake of some pleasing effect and (iii) simultane-ous super-

imposition of many qualities ( yugapannaika dharmffi)am adhyasah, II,

97)~3

Here ends Danr)in' s enumerations of glll)ci.-s. Dan!jin offers

only a general definition of ·alankara as an embellishment ( kavya-

I sobhakara dharma, II, 1). It applies to gll\la too. The glll)a-s are

therefore laid down as pertaining to the excellent diction and therefore

vi~i~ta alankara-s, while the so-called figures or alankara-s are spoken

of as sadharaQa (II, 3) implying its commonality.

Let us now briefly study the theory of poetry based· . . on

rTti or style.

Rrti

The basic position held by the writers of this . theory of

poetry is that it is style which defines poetry. vamana (800 A.D.),

43 cf: S.K. De, op. c...i.t., p, 103 : Here S.K. De says that the process of poetic transference is essentially a mode of figurative expression and should be regarded as consti­tuting in vakrokti, which consists in a similar transference based on resemblance.

91

the chief exponent of this theory defines 1 riti1

as the soul of poetry

(r'itiratma kavyasya, I, 2.6) in his work_~ Kavyiilamkara Sutras. 44

I Vamana pointed out that the word (sabda) and the sense (artha) consti-

tute the • body' of which the • soul' is riti, meaning thereby that

poetry consis ti~ of word and sense is • sarira • or body, of which • at man •

l . . -t· 45 or sou , 1s r1 1. Moreover Vamana defines riti as v-i.l.-i.~{:a. pa.da Jc.ac.ana

(I, 2. 7) or particular· arrangement of words, thereby once again confining

his theory of poetry to the • body • . In order to endow poetry with

'a • soul', Vamana insists upon imparting a · speciality to word-

arrangements, which speciality is effected by the harmonious blending

of the technical embellishments called g~a-s. These gUIJa-s unlike

alankara constitute inseperable attributes of poetry (purve nityah,

III, 1. 3) since they go to make up the ri ti 46 which is the essence

of poetry. Thus by making DanQ.in • s gUIJa-s as base Vamana classified

r'iti into three kinds, viz. , vaidarbhi, gaudiya and pancali (I, 2. 9) .

44 Reference to this work is by Ganganath Jha (2nd ed.)

based on the work translated (Oriental Books, Poona, 1928).

45

46

S.K. De, op. c.-i.t.,vol. 2, p. 89.

cf: S.K. De, op. c.-it., vol. 2, p. 92:- "Riti is not, like the style, the expression of poetic individuality, as it is generally understood by western criticism, but it is merely the outward presentation of its beauty called forth by a harmonious combination of more or less fixed literary excellences ... " However we shall find later, that Kuntaka 1 s enumeration of style as marga close I y approximates the western concept of, 1 style is the man 1 • 1n6Jc.a., The Vakrokti School.

92

Vaidarbhi unites all the ten glll}a-s ( samagragUI;apeta, I, 2, 11) . . Gaudiya

abounds in ojas and kanti ( ojah kantimati I, 2 .12) , while Pandili

is endowed with madhurya and saukumarya ( madhurya saukumaryopapanna

I, 2.13). Of these three rTti-s, Vamana assigns the highest place

to the vaidarbhi as it contains all the poetic qualities and hence

t k t f 11 . f 1 4 7 serve o rna e poe ry u y meanmg u • Whereas gaudiya and panciili

were placed in an inferior position as they lack in one or the other

qualities.

Vamana describes alankara-s as those features that help to

heighten the beauty produced ( tado.U..6atjo. he.ta.vcu tJc.ctl.ain k.M.o.h, III, 1. 2)

guna-s . which are defined· generally as those elements which go

to embellish poetic beauty (II, 1.1) and which constitute the riti.

Vamana, however, finds a double application in the ten gul)a-s of Dandin.

Thus he speaks of ten glll}a-s related to sabda and ten gul)a-s related

to artha. However, "it will be found that there is no conflict in

anyway between the features attributed to a gUQ.a on the side of the

word and those attributed on the side of meaning. These two sets

or features can co-exist. They even lead to mutual enrichment. If

it were two different sets, he should have given them two different

sets of names. But they are essentially the same ten gu~a-s. All

that he has done is to list their verbal and semantic characteristics

47 cf: ,Vm., !.2.11: "That Diction is called vajdarbhi which is untouched by even the slightest Defect, which is replete with all Qualities and which is sweet like the notes of the lute." (Tr. Ganganath Jha). That is, this style in­evitably leads to the experience of ~p1gara rasa, i.e., to the experience of the beautiful.

93

48 separately". Thus we may find in the gupa, ojas on the side of I sabda, it consists in ornateness (VII, 1. 5) or hign sounding words

and sentences, and on the side of artha, it consists in the boldness

of conception (III, 2 .1) . In the glll}a, · prasada, on the side of Sabda,

it consists in plainness (III, 1. 6) , and on the side of artha it consists

in the clearness of meaning (III, 2. 3) . In the g~a, madhurya, on

the side of sabda, it consists in the distinctness of words. (III, 1.21)

and on the side of artha it consists in the impressiveness or sweetness

of the conception (III, 2 .11) . 49

Part of this consideration is the discussion of poetic flaws

( do~a-s) which must be avoided. Thus, though difference . may have

existed among the theorists of the different schools of criticism regard-

ing the character of theories, they were all agreed upon the fundamental

· point, that is, on the avoidance of poetic flaws ( do!ia-s), as it has

a deterring effect on poetry, and thereby tends to mar its beauty

(Dn, 1. 7). However, there are cases in which what is ordinarily

considered to constitute a fault, help to enhance the poetic beauty

in certain circumstances. For instance, repetition which is considered

to be a fault, becomes a charm when it is spoken by a speaker in

a fit of passion at somebody or over some incident or to attract

/

48 V.K. Gokak, An Integral View of Poetry (Abhinav Pub., New Delhi, 1975), p. 170.

49 Most later writers on poetics find only these three gunas, viz., ojas, priisada and madhurya of importance, as ·had Bhamaha earlier. cf: Gokak, op. c.-it., pp.' 170-171: Hence I sle\5a and ud~rata are joined to ojas; while arthavyakti, samata and samadhi are joined to '{)rasada and saukumarya and k~nti are joined to madhurya on the basis of the similarity of features between the gu~a-s in each group.

94

another's attention (On. IV, 14-15). Otherwise Sanskrit theoreticians

in general consider the: absence of do~a-s as a source of poetic •- ·_-

charm. One may refer to the ten kavyado~a-s enumerated by Bharata,

in this connection.

It has been seen that, alailkara, guna and riti, the technical . poetic elements with which Bhamaha, Danc;Hn and Vamana respectively

were mainly concerned, have got the same origin in as much as they

arose out of a mechanical analysis of the word and the sense, and

consequently served as the means of arriving only at the _formal beauty

of poetry. This broad idea of beauty in literature analysable into

alankara, glll}a and rTti is in, no way adequate to explain the deeper

significance of poetry, especailly the delectability of rasa or poetic/

aesthetic experience. Though Bhamaha, Dangin and Vamana attempted

an explanation of rasa, it had reference only to the arrangement of

-letters and words or to the formal ways of expressing a particular

idea. The· disinterested joy that the reader derives from reading

a poem, being completely absorbed in the situation depicted, -became

the real test of all good poetry with the advent of the Rasa School.

Theory of poetry, according to this school centred around the belief

that true poetic charm lies in the successful arousal of 'rasa' or aesthe­

tic experience in the reader and hence ought to be the predominant

aim of poetry and to which all other factors should be subordinate.

Let us now take up a study of the theory of poetry based

on rasa.

95

The Rasa School

Critics aligned to the Rasa School of criticism took the aesthe-

tic theory of rasa propounded by Bharata in connection with his work

on dramaturgy and worked it into a unique theory of poetry. The

theory became associated with the view that the poem is the effect

of a powerful feeling in the author and that this feeling is realised

or objectified in the literary work, in tranquility. 50 The success

of the poem can be gauged ·by judging how well it expresses this

feeling. Poetry thus came to be considered as an emotional use of

language.

Bharata had earlier explained in his Natyasastra , that rasa

is the essence of dramatic composition and that no meaning can proceed

50 The oft quoted example is that of the great Indian poet, Sage Valmfki ( 200 BC-200 AD), the author of the epic RamayaQ.a ( Gorakhpur, Gita Press, New Del hi). Observations reveal 'rasa' as forming the soul of this poetic creation, and that the epic is only an outward manifestation of the tragic emotion aroused in the mind of the poet on hearing the lamentations of Kraunca (curlew) separated from its · consort by the arrow of a hunter. This experience found expression in a completely unpremediated couplet (m~ni~ada

pratisth'Amtvam agamah sa~vatih samah/ Yat Kraunca mithunadekam vadhiha kama mohitam) of extreme simplicity and deep sympathy for the bereaved. Though the couplet originated unpremediated, the sage did not sit lamenting or wailing over the death of the bird. He sat down and in tranquility composed an epic of extreme beauty in which he objectified the pain felt in separation, through apt characters. The personal emotion ( soka or sorrow) is now enclosed in the characters, so the whole humanity can share it now. A reader or audience who witness this drama identifies himself with the characters and shares the sorrow, so that it becomes transformed into the universal experience of karu~Ja rasa, cf: Wordsworth, 'Preface to Lyrical Ballads' (2nd Edition, 1800) in The Theory of Criticism (Edited and Introduced by Raman Selden, Longman, London, 1988) p. 177: "Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; and takes its origin from emo­tions recollected in tranquility; the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranqui.lity gradually dis­appear and an emotion, kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation is gradually produced, and does it­self actually exist in the mind."

96

from speech in the absence of rasa (na h~ ~~adhte ~a1e~d atthah p~avat-

tate, VI , 3 2 , KSS ) . He also stated that rasa is basically a state of

relish (M,vadhqamQ.natvatu, VI, prose line after 32, KSS.). Rasa deve-

loped from the basic emotion (sthayibh'ava) which inhered in all human

heart when fed by a number of minor bh'avas or emotions, as well as

by the configuration (samyog) of the vibhavas (external stimulants),

anubhavas (the consequents) and vyabhicaris (transitory emotions) . 51

However, later writers on rasa, differed in interpreting the

theory of rasa enunciated for purpose of drama, when they applied

the theory of rasa to a literary work. The main reason for the variance

is that Bharata did not clearly define the words samyoga (configuration)

and ni~pattih (creation). 52 For instance when an actor playing the

part of a hero or heroine, expresses the ideas of that character, a

sense of pleasure overtakes the audience on account of the rasa created

in them. When that happened, the question was whether the character

51 cf: T.S. Eliot, Selected Essays, 1917-1932 (New York, 1932) pp. 124-5: The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an 'objective correlative' in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events, which shall be formula of that particular emotion, such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked.

52 cf ·. P S R A R • • • ppa ao, A Monograph on Bharata's Naatya

Pub., Hyderabad, 1967) p. 26). the Sanskrit transliteration scheme in the original is retained here.)

Saastra ( Naatya Maala (It may be noted that adopted by the author

97

described in the play, or the actor that takes up the role of the

character were subject to the experience of rasa. Thus, as evidenced

from the commentary on - ,_ Natyasastra by Abhinavagupta ( c .lOOOA . D • ) ,

viz. , Abhinavabharati 53 , Bhagalollata, who appears to be the first

commentator on Bharata' s rasa theory, stated that ·rasa is created in I

the character described in the play. Later Sri Sm1kiika contradicted

this view and stated that rasa is experienced by the actor alone. Still

later, Bhatta Nayaka contradicted both these views and stated that .. rasa is experienced by the audience alone, as a result of the histrionic

expression of the actor. Abhinavagupta examined the views of all

these three writers in his 1Abhinavabharati' and established with analy-

tical reasoning that rasa is experienced only by the sympathetic

audience or the 'sahrdaya' (literally 'of the same heart' ) . • Hence

he showed that rasa is not experienced by all, that only an individual

who has a clear mind, unadulterated by other thoughts, and is sympa-

thetically directed towards witnessing a play or reading a literary

work, can experience rasa. Thus, for instance, men of low character.

cannot enjoy the display of love in separation (viprlHarhbha sp\gara).

These men have no feeling of constancy in love and cannot appreciate

a lover's pinning for his/her beloved, when he/she is away from him/

her. Naturally such readers cannot identify themselves with a lover

pinning for his beloved. Therefore the most important and requisite

qualification for the experience of rasa is the capacity to stabilise

one's feeling by giving close attention to the object of his meditation.

(Anandavardhana in his Dhanyaloka mentions half .:..a-dozen situations in

which rasabhanga or disruption of aesthetic experience takes place,

due to the sthayibhavas attaining only the position of sandiris.)

53 cf: N.S., VI after verse 32, K.S.S.

98

Abhinavagupta also explained how the experience of rasa goes through

the five levels, viz., the level of the. senses, the imaginative levels,

the emotional level, the rasa-experience and finally the level of transc­

endence or sadharl)ikaral}a. 54 Abhinavagupta accepted all rasas as bliss-

ful. That is, he realised the capability of all rasas, through the

experience of the universal, to lead one to the awareness of one's

consciousness. 55 Later Jagannatha (17th cen. A.D.) clarified· this "theory

of aesthetic bliss as the manifestation of the inner light and bliss

of the self when the en.crustrations obscuring it are broken down by

the impact of art. He accordingly defined poetry as an expression

in a verbal medium whose contemplation results in a supra mundane

blissfulness. n 56 This has been the prevailing mode of criticism based

on the theory of rasa ever since.

Let us next take up the study of the Dhvani School of criticism.

54 It is the state of universalisation in which one experiences a state of stableness. It may be compared to the state of 'purgation', explained in the theory of catharsis, pro­pounded by the Greek philosopher and critiC, Aristotle (384 B.C.) in his work 'Poetics'. Aristotle uses the word in his definition of tragedy in chapter VI of 'Poetics'. Hence he says that tragedy through pity and fear affects a purgation of these emotions. That is, tragedy having aroused powerful feelings in the audience, has also a therapeutic effect i.e. after the storm and climax there comes a sense of release from tension, of calm. Reference is here to the 5th edition of Aristotle's Poetics by Rama Brothers, New Delhi, 1980.

55 cf: A R ppa ao, 'The Rasa Experience', in, op. c..i.t., pp·. 26-28.

56 Princeton Encyclopedia, op. c..U., p. 384.

99

The Dhvani School

The Dhvani School of criticism bases its theory of poetry on

semantics or meaning in poetry. Hence the propounder of this theory

of poetry Anandavardhana (9th cen. A.D.) in his work Dhvanyaloka57

states that the animating principle of poetry lies in the meaning which

can capture the heart of refined critics. ( LJO aJttha.h

k.a.vLJatmeu vLJa.vMth.<.ta.h, I, 2). He explains that meaning has two aspects,

viz., the explicit or expressed (vacya) and the implicit or suggested

(pratiyamana). The explicit meaning is the conventional meaning shared

by all the community in their social and intellectual intercourse, and

is understood by everyone . who knows the language. The implicit how-

ever cannot be understood by everyone as it involves the metaphorical

use of language, and the meaning can be reached only at the level of

suggestion or vyanjana. 58 Anandav ardhana explained in his Dhvanyaloka,

57 Critically edited with Introduction, Translation and Notes by Dr. K.. Krishnamoorthy (Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1982) .

58 cf: Mammata 's Kavyaprak~sa, Edited with Introduction and Translation and Notes by A. B. Gajendragadker (Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1970). Notes, Second Flash, p. 8: In poetry a word has three powers viz., abhida or denotation, lak;;ar;ta or indication and vyarijana or suggestion. By the function of abhida, we get the literal meaning of a word. Lak~ai].a suppresses the literal meaning and gives what is indicated. For instance in "the country rejoices n. what is indicated is that the people of the country rejoices. Whereas when one says, "Youth is the spring of life" what we understand is neither denoted nor indicated. What is implied here is the joy and beauty of spring time. This meaning is unexpressed and yet it is apprehended. This is made possible by the power of the word to suggest. Anandavardha•oatransferred vyanjana to poetry.

100

that the implicit is supreme and stands above the explicit just as

in the cases of ladies whose charm outshines the beauty of all the

individual limbs observed separately, and delights the reader in a

unique 59 way. This implicit meaning (vyangyartha) which is unique

is alone characterised as the essence of poetry by Anandavardhana.

Hence he laid stress on suggestive poetry or 1dhvani kavya', and defined

it as that poetry in which both the sabda or sound and artha or sense

subordinates themselves and renders the vyangyartha or implied meaning

as all important. 60

Anandavardhana agrees that the meaning (avivak~itavacya) obtained

through metaphors viz.. samasokti. akl?epa, parayayokti. apanuhuti.

dip aka, vi~e~okti - (I, prose line after verse 13) are in the nature

of suggestion, but this suggested meaning is only a reflection (pratibha-

matre) of the expression. Hence the word with such a meaning has

only a limited usefulness, but the word replete with vyangartha is

always an end'mitself, and always goes on increasing its meaning more

and more. The meaning conveyed through a lak~Hll)a is always an idea,

whereas the suggested meaning can be an idea, or vastu, a figure of

speech or aiankara or a sentiment or rasa. Thus, an idea which would

look dry if stated plainly might be made to look charming when suggested

and this suggested meaning is called vastu dhvani. For instance, note

the following lines:

59 pratiyamanam punavanyadeva vastvasti vani~u mahakavinamu I

yattapratta siddha vayavatiriktam vibhati Iavanyamivanganasu II

(I' 4).

60 ytrarthah ~abdo va tamarthamupasar janTkrta svarthau vyangyatkah kavyavi~e~ah sa dhvanriti stiribhih kathitah ll

(I, 13)

101

Ramble o, hermit, confidently

That dog is today killed

By the fierce lion that dells

In Gada river dwells. (An. I, after verse 4)

Here an idea is conveyed in the nature of prohibition.

A figure of speEJCh may also be pressed into similar service.

It may in its turn be made to suggest another figure of speech or a

new idea, and that is alankara dhvani. Note for instance the following

quotation:

Lit up are the quarters with your lustrous beauty

and your face looks charming with a smile upon it

And still, 0 darling, if the ocean does not swell

Obviously it is a mass of inertness. 61

Though the idea of thB moon-face is not stated directly, it is clearly

suggested. It is only when the metaphor of the lady's face being identi-

fied with the moon is understood, the passage will become meaningful.

Much of the beauty of the passage is due to the rupaka-ala:hkara dhvani.

This figure is not at all to be discovered at the explicit level. On

the other hand if what is suggested is rasa, then that suggested meaning

is called rasadhvani. Anandavardhana is of the opinion that instances

of rasadhvani are found mostly in poems portraying the emotions of

love, especially love-in-separation (vipralambha), as also that portraying

the pathetic emotion ( karlll}a), because in such instances the mind is

62 moved very much.

61 Quoted in K. Krishnamoorthy, The Dhvanyaloka And its Critics (Mysore, 1968), p. 106.

62 , srngara viprllambharavye karul)e ca prakar~avata J madhuryam!rdratam yati yatastatradhikam manah JJ (II, 8) .

102

Yet, there may occur cases where both the alankara and rasa

may be clearly defined in a poem, and yet difficulties may arise in

deciding their relative importance. For instance, note the following

lines:

Why this jest?

Thou shalt not certainly part again from me,

Having returned after so long.

0 ruthless one! Whence this flair for travel?

Thus in dreams do the wives of your enemy speak

Clasping fast the necks of their beloved lords;

But soon they awake

To find empty their embraces

and to lament loud (II , after verse 5 ) .

In this .example the emotion of pathos is as important as the praise

to the king. Hence it is clearly a case of rasavadalankara, or

figurative sentiment. 63

However, Anandavardhana favoured the poetry which had rasa

63 cf: Krishnamoorthy, 'Introduction', Anandavar dhana' s Dhvanyaloka, op. c.-i..t., p. xxxiii: "This is the famous anga-angibhlva extended to the relation between rasa and alankara for the first time by Anandavardhana. The impli­cations of this indeed are far-reaching. If rasa is principal, it is called dhvani; if rasa is subsidiary, it loses its claim to the title of dhvani and acquires the lower status of rasa vadalaflk~ra. It means rasa has a dual role in poetry'! 'This point has been taken up in the Vakrokti. school, for it is argued that rasa can never be assigned a subordinate position. Infact, dhvani itself can be divided and subdivided into many varieties ( na cai vam vidhasya dh vaner vakllya mal).a prabhedatad bhedasam kalanaya mahavi~ayasya ... sarhrarhbhah, Dhv., pp. 135-136) and Anandavardhana declares that it is not---pQssible for anyone to enumerate all the vari­eties and sub-varieties of dhvani and hence he simply indicates the direction of classification (III, 44).

103

as the suggested content. Hence, Anandavardhana admits only those formal

features that promote the cause of rasadhvani. Among figures of speech

or alankaras he admits only those alar'l.karas which help in the realisation

of rasa. Though he favours the employment of sabd1Hankaras, which

are important for developing the srngara rasa, he cautions that only

that should be admitted as a figure of suggestive poetry, whose employ­

ment is just sufficient for rendering the emotional suffusion ·of the poet

aptly. Intricate rhyme schemes are not welcomed (II, 16) . The arth1Han­

k~ras that are welcomed are rupaka (II,17), sle~a (II, prose line after

verse 10) vyatireka, di"paka, samasokti and atisayokti. 64 In fact> ati-

~ayokti is regarded as the most important figure of speech, for Anand a-

vardhana states that onlY: this figure helps in acquiring abundant beauty.

It is ·defined as artistic turn of speech (vakrokti, III, 36), and is

emphasised that it is by this figure that poetic content is made manifest.

Anandavardhana does not discuss rTti. Instead he explained

it in terms of sanghatana (III, 5) or texture, which is grounded in

qualities or gUI]a-s. The gUI]a-s that he admits are madhurya, prasada,

and ojas. These gul}a-s have an inseparable association with the

evocation of rasa. Thus the madhurya gul}a evokes the:. I .J.. -Sfugara rasa

and in ther form of supreme delight melts ( druU · ) the heart; the ojas

gUI]a evokes the raudra rasa and exists in the form of a brilliant

expansion ( dipti) of the heart, while the prasada glll}a exists in the

form of pervasion of the heart (vyapti) (III, prose lines after verse

5).

64 cf: Dhvanyaloka, III, 36 and also prose lines following this verse.

104

On the basis of all these, Anandavardhana classified

into three different kinds, i.e. in relation to its suggested sense.

first kind called dhvani kavya is that in which the suggested

poetry

The

sense

predominates and supercedes the expressed. The second type called

gUJtibhutavyailgya kavya (III, 35) is that in which the suggested sense

is either ( 1) auxillary ( 2) hinted by tone or gesture ( 3) subservent

to the completion of the expressed sense ( 4) of doubtful prominence

(5) of equal prominence (6) obscure (7) unconcealed or (8) not charming.

The third type called citrakavya is that which is without any suggested

element, being merely 1 pictorial in word 1 or 1 pictorial in sense 1 , (III,

4ttl2).

In the final analysis we may conclude by noting that to analyze

a verse technically from the point of view of dhvani, one will first

point out its denoted meaning, then the indicated meaning and then see

whether these two meanings 1 suggest 1 something. If it does so by

subordinating the expressed and the indicated, then it is a dhvani

kavya or suggestive poetry. This suggested meaning can be an idea

or vastu, a figure or alankara or an emotion or rasa. Thus by skilful

use of suggestions one may put as much meaning as possible into a poem.

This desire to increase the meaning of the poem explains much in poetry

that will otherwise be mysterious.

Let us now take up the study of the theory of poetry according

to the Vakrokti School of Criticism.

The Vakrokti School

Bhamaha 1 s 1 Vakrokti 1 (supra, 81) became the basis of a unique

105

theory of poetry for I<untaka in his Vakrokti-Jivita. 65 Bhamaha calls

the 1 charming feature 1 of a poem 'bhavika' (III, 53), a quality or gutta

which visualises objects both past and future ( bhutabhavinah). Though

Bhamaha extends this 1 superior quality 1 to the composition as a whole,

he ultimately limits its application to the figure atisayokti ( Bm, II, 81) .

Hence Bhamaha defines 1atisayokti4 as that in which "something transcending

ordinary experience is described but not without a reason". 66

In other

words objects are discovered to our vision through a peculiar power,

thus approximating transcendental 57 definitions of beauty. Bhamaha

now extends this chantcteristic of ati~ayokti to vakrokti ( Bm, II, 85) 68

.

It is evident that vakrokti indicates a kind of imaginative usage of

words so that the mmmings are beautifully rendered. Hence Bhamaha

characterises poetic speech as vakravacam ( Bm. VI, 2 3) and a poet

is said to be one who possess 1 Imagination: 1 I k.avya.m jO..tu

k.~yae~tpk~~bhav~tah, I,5). Thus Bhamaha regards Vakrokti as the

65

66

67

68

Critically edited with Variants, Introduction translation by Dr. Krishnamoorthy ( Karnatak Dharwar, 1977).

nimitto vaco yattu lokirti kantagocaramu manyante ati~ayoktiin tamalankarataya yatha II

(Bm.II,81)

and English University,

cf: J .A. Cuddon, A Dictionary of Literary Terms (Penguin Books, 1979), p. 714:- "It emphasised the importance of individual conscience, and the value of intuition in matters of moral guidance and inspiration".

Sai~a sarvalva vakroktiranayarthau vibhavyate I yantosyam kavina karyah ko' alamkaronaya vina JJ

(Tr.) This peculiar method of statement ( vakrokti) is found everywhere (i.e. in other alankaras). By this, meanings are rendered beautiful. Poets should be assiduous in cui ti-vating it. Where is the a! ankara without this? ( cf: Naganatha Sastry's translation, p. 46).

106

fundamental principle behind figurative expression, or as an imaginative-

69 h' h . ness, w 1c 1s necessary to constitute a poetic figure and which is

absent in the natural mode of expression.

Now Kuntaka took this principle of figures of speech, viz.,

Vakrokti, and appliect it to the composition as a whole. Vakrokti was

thus raised to" encompass all the features of poetry, viz. , alahkara,

glll)a, rrti, rasa and dhvani making none subordinate to the other. Hence

Kuntaka' s definition of poetry as

Sdbd~thau ~ah~tduv~dtd, vqap~d ~al~n~ I

bdndhe. vqdvMUtdtu "Civtjain tddv~diih.iddd "~~~~ 1/ I 1, 7) ,

When expanded it means that ·poetry is the union of word (sabda) and

sense (artha), revealing the imaginc;ttive (vakrata) creativity (vyapara-

, -salini) of the poet on the one hand and giving aesthetic delight (tadvid-

ahldakariJti) to the man of taste on the other. Kuntaka is not satisfied

with the fact that mere word and meaning made charming alone

constitutes vakrokti, as Bhamaha noted. Kuntaka believes that it also

consists in the union or sahitya, . which term is restricted to mean

· harmony resulting from the union of word as well as meaning, to produce

delight. The harmony or grace of the union is noticeable in the rise

69 cf: Coleridge quoted in Wimsatt and Brooks, Literary Criticism, A short History (Routledge and Kegan, London) (Indian Reprint, 1970), p. 348: Poetry is the product of "that synthetic and magical power to which we have exclusi­vely appropriated the name of Imagination". cf: M.K. Naik (ed.) Indian Response to Poetry in English (Macmillan, London, 1970). p. 15:- "According to the Yogasutra aphorism­pratibhad va sarvam-Prati bha-is the power of knowing things independent! y of the stimulation of senses by the corres­ponding external objects and even without learning of them from talk about them by one who knows".

107

of the glli)aS like madhurya in harmony with style and the employment

of figures endowed with abundant artistic beauty (I, prose line following

verse 17). It is also found in the full development of sentiments in

keeping with the prescribed modes. When all these are present competi­

tively in both sabda and artha, it contributes to the charm (vaicitrya -

I, 19) resulting from vakrokti.

Kuntaka' s vakrokti involves the creative and inventive processes

of the mind too, one that ultimately lays emphasis on the poet possessed

of imagination. Hence his definition of vakrokti as vcU.da.gdhlJa. bha.ng.{

bhat}-iu (I, 10), which may be explained as imaginative use of speech

by a skilled poet (vaidagdhya).

As vakrokti implies the use of imagination, everything that is

described within that outlook necessarily involves the use of symbols. 70

The function of the imuginative mind is to decipher these symbols and

render their meaning in poetry. In order to identify the symbols a

discrepancy is creatt:Jd between 'natural poetry' or svabhavokti and

'art poetry' or vakrokti. Kuntaka argues that if svabhavokti is an

70 cf: J.A. Cuddon, op. c...{t., p. 671: "The word symbol. .. is an object, animate or inanimate, which represents or stands for something else". cf: T .E. Hulme, 'Speculations' (New York, 1924) p. 135: "Poetry is a matter of images, metaphor... visual meanings can only be transferred by the new bowl of metaphors. . . Images in verse are not mere decorations but the very essence of intuitive language."

108

alankara as considered by some rhetoricians, 71 then there remains nothing

on earth to be ornamented (I ,11) . 72 So Kuntaka includes svabhavokti

in the scope of a special kind of poetry, in which the naturalness

of the expression becomes a source of charm (I, 41) . After creating

this discrepancy between svabhavokti or 'natural poetry' and vakrokti

or 'art poetry' , Kuntaka next concentrated on analysing the characteri'stics

71 The reference here is to Dandin. Dandin implies by the term, vakrokti, as a collective name for all poetic figures except svabhavokti, which he keeps as a separate figure of speech-dvidha bhinnal'n svabhavoktir vakrokti' s ceti vanmayam (II, 362). cf: Kapil Kapoor, 'Grammatical Bounds of Tropological Creativity - How Creative is the Metaphor?' in H. C. Narang, ( ed) Occasional Papers In English &

Linguistics (CLE/SL, J.N.U., India, Winter, 1985) p.l: Linguistic Expression may be as:

Ukti (Linguistic Expression)

Vakrokti (deviant reference)

Kavisamyak (non-literal)

I . I Alamkarik (figurative)

Svabhavokti (convention reference)

72 cf: Krishnamoorthy (ed.) Vakrokti-JTvita, p. 307: Natural description is nothing more than the bare statement of the objects as they are in nature. If 'natural description' means 'nature as it is conveyed without (deviation)' and can also be termed 'ornament' then we land ourselves in trouble. There will be nothing left to be termed natural them.

109

that effected the deviation (vakrata) on the natural mode of expression.

The vakrata of the components of words expounded by Kuntaka

agrees with the Dhvani school's conception of their suggestiveness.

Hence significative words and their senses form the body and vakrata

consisting in the clever and dexterous choice of words and meanings

form its embellishments. Six varieties of vakrata (deviation) are dis-

tinguished. 73 They are (i) varl)avinyasa vakrata corresponding to ~abd­

alankaras; ( ii) padap'Grvardha vakrata or the choice of wordstems;

(iii) pratyayavakrata or the Use of affixes; (iv) vakyavakrata under

which all the artha1ankaras are brought ( v) prakaral)a vakrata or the

choice of or the change made in the incidents of the plot; (vi) praban-

dhavakrata or the construction of the plot itself-.

In the first chapter, Kuntaka explains the general conception

of these varieties with illustrations. In the second chapter~ he takes

up for detailed analysis the first three varieties. In the third chapter,

he deals with vakyavakrata and in the fourth chapter. he deals with.

the last two varieties.

Vakrokti in varQavinyasa helps to create a unique sound effect

capable of stirring the heart of men to an inexpressible delight. Hence

anupdisa or alliteration (ii,5) exploits the beauty of syllables, and

it serves the cause of qualities as well as styles (gUI)amarganuvartini,

II, 5). The beauty of alliteration is basically realised in euphony.

When this art is governed by rhyme or yam aka (II, 6), which consists

of words of similar sounds with different meaning, perspicuous and

73 Kavivyapara vakrtva prakara : sarhbhavanti sast I pratyekarh behavo bhedaste~am vicchitti~obhi~ah· II

(1,18)

110

pleasing to the ear and endowed with decorum (au city a, a quality,

I, 53) and which shines in specific places of the verses, acquires a

new aspect and produces yet another kind of beauty.

Kuntaka was not in favour of increasing the number of arth-

al.ankaras. He selected only those which served the purpose of

74 paradox and !lletaphor. vakrokti, which was of the nature of irony,

It involves a structure in which both the 1 tenor 1 (purport or general

drift of thought regarding the subject of a metaphor, J .A. Cuddon,

q. v. ) and the 1 vehicle 1 (the image which em bodies the tenor, J. A.

Cuddon, q. v.) are wrought in a parallel process out of the same

material. The interest in the· metaphoric usage derives not so much

from our awareness df disparity, but in the opposite activity of our

discerning the design, and unity latent in a multiform sensuous picture.

This is in fact a form of reconciliation. The figures that Kuntaka

employs are dip aka (III, 17), rupaka (III, 2122), upama (III, 35), utprek:;>a

(III, 29) , vyatireka (III, 48) , sle:;>a (III, 44) , arthantaranyasa (III, 54) ,

akf?epa (III, 55), vibhavana (III, 57), paryayokta (III, 27), aprastuta­

pra§amsa (I_II, 25), ati~ayokti (III, 33) , sasandeha (III, 24) , virodha

(III, 50) and apahnuti (III, 59) . ·

Kuntaka 1 s preference for arthal.ankaras which are possessed

of ample potential for suggestive uses, indicates his preference for

74 cf: V.N. Dhavale, 'Meaning in Poetry and Indian poetics' in C.D. · Narasimhaiah (ed) Literary Criticism: European and Indian Tradition (Univ. of Mysore, 1965), p. 141:­"Vakrokti in its literal as well as extended meaning closely approaches 'irony' 'ambiguity' or 'oblique statement' ... Kuntaka like Empson, Cleanth Brooks and others wants all poetry to be 'indirect' and 'oblique'. cf: R.S. Pathak, Oblique Poetry In Indian And Western Poetics ( Bahri Pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1988).

111

Dhvani in poetry 1 and also its contribution to aesthetic pleasure. As

a result of the effective use of artistic words and meaning I even the

suggested meaning is made to appear as if it was directly denoted.

Such use of words with double meaning I with a view to illuminate a

clear 1 suggested meaning creates extremely delightful effect.

Similarly Kuntaka Is enumeration of rrti or what he calls marga

or style 1 and gunas or qualities are all directed towards the develop-. ment of the sweet and delectable rasas. He acknowledges three margas I

viz. I saukumarya (I I :10) vivified by expressions which are lovely and

uncompounded; vi citra (I 1 34) where the meaning is enunciated by a

suggestive use of language 1 and excelling in artistic beauty of

expression. The figurt:J ati~ayokti is said to highlight this style (I 1 44).

The' third style is the madhyama (I I 49). Its main feature: is that

it pleases all by favouring a mixed style. Kuntaka having attributed

the excellence of a poem on the genius of the poet I admits that a

particular style depmldBd on the ~akti (power) 1 vyupatti {culture) and

abhyasa {practise) of particular types of poets. Thus a certain group

of poets has a special aptitude towards a certain style while others

prefer another style {I I 30'7!9).

Kuntaka's trEJatment of gui)a-s is much more elaborate.

He recognised six types of gUQa-sl viz. I madhurya (I 1 44) I prasada

(I I 45) I Iaval)ya (I I 47) or grace I abhijata {I I 48) or classicism. Kuntaka

analysed the effect or each of these gUI)aS on each style in detail 1

keeping an eye for t.IX posing the excellent features that contribute to

raising the beauty anrl charm of the poem. Kuntaka names two other

112

gUI)aS, viz., aucitya (I, 53) 75 or decorum, which is regarded as the

vi tal essence of all poetic descriptions, for its presence emphasised

the fitness of words and ideas; and saubhagya (I,55) or splendour.

This quality reflects the total excellence arising out of the realisation

of all the excellences of a corn position.

Kuntaka admits the necessity of rasa but regards its delineation

as arising out of Vakrokti. It is discussed in terms of rasa vat (III, 16),

because Kuntaka believes rasa is the vi tal essence of all figures of

speech, "because it suffuses poetry with rasa; poetry is rasavat in

the sense that rasa exists therein. That quality or state itself is

rasavat. "76 Kuntaka thinks that the case of rasavat should be consi-

dered as one in which the poet has an opportunity of creating a kind

of vakrokti in which the rasa supplies the principal charm. 77

In the final analysis it may be noted that Kuntaka' s analysis -

of the elements of poetry - alankara, glll)a, r'iti, rasa, dhvani - were

meant to show how they conduce to the creation of poetic 78 lustre.

75

76

77

78

K~emendra (11th cen. A.D.) in his treatise 'Aucitya vicaracara' converted the principle of 'aucitya' into a theory of poetry. His theory underscores the harmonious compactness of the poetic structure on which alone the beauty and appeal of poetry lies. Hence he stressed that poetry should have caruta (charm) and camatkara (wonder) and should be hrdyasa­mvadin, or capable of appealing to the heart.

Krishnamoorthy, Vakrokti-Jivita, o , it P· ~"'" • ' p. 455.

cf: S.K. De, The Vakrokti-Jivita by Rajanaka Kuntaka (Firma, K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta, 3rd ed., 1961), p. XXI.

cf: Kuntaka, III, 64: lavaQy1:tdiguqojvala prati padanyasairvilasa jei ta vicci tya raci tairvi bhul?aJ;labharairalpairmanohar iJ;li atyartha rasavattayardrahrdya ... ... manoh bantu yatha nayika (Tr) Artful speech of a good poet appeals to one's heart even like one's beloved:- Both the beloved and poetic speech share

Contd •...

113

Kuntaka has so enunciated the vakrata in these elements that it covers

the whole art and craft of poetry.

Kuntaka thus inaugurated the organic79 theory of poetry as

well as the aesthetic principle of inclusiveness or the reconciliation

of opposite and discordant qualities which became the basic conception

of poetic unity and thereby of his principle of vakrokti.

These four theories of poetry enumerated above viz. , Alankara,

Rasa, Dhvani and Vakrokti can now become the basis for analysis

of the poetry of the three poetesses selected here for study, namely

Toru Dutt, Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Das, in the next chapter.

Fn. 78 contd.

CO!llnon attributes, namely, possession of striking qualities like grace, alluring charm of word-usage or foot-steps, appeal of elegant but sparse ornaments, abundance of tasteful sentiment and tender heartedness and elegance of expressions (p. 535).

79 cf: J.A. Cuddon, op. cit., q;v.: The implications of the organic form are that a work grows from a seminal concept, like a living organism.