CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Morphology

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1998:69), morphology is the study of the

internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed. The meaning

of morphology is the science of word forms. Knowing a language implies knowing its

morphology.

If you ask ordinary people what the smallest unit of language is, many would

probably say the word. However, in fact, many words can be broken down into

smaller units, and we refer to one of these smaller units as a morpheme. According to

Deterding and Poedjosoedarmo (2001:6), morphology is concerned with the way that

words can be broken up into morphemes.

According to Haspelmath (2002:1) in his book “Understanding Morphology”,

he gives three definitions of Morphology, they are:

1. Morphology is the study of internal structure of words

2. Morphology is the study of systematic covariation in the form and

meaning of words.

3. Morphology is the study of the combination of morphemes to yield words.

From the theories above, this research uses the theory of morphology

according to Haspelmath. This research defined morphology as the study of words

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structure, systematic covariation in the form and meaning of words and the

combination of morphemes become words.

2.2 Morpheme

Morphology as a sub-branch of linguistics deals with the internal structure of

word-forms. The basic units of analysis recognize in morphology are morphemes.

Consider, for example, the word-form ŋəmasakin. This can be segmented to show its

constituent elements thus: ŋə-masak-in, each of these segments has its own form (or

set of form), its own meaning, and its own distribution. None of these segments ŋə-

masak-in can be further subdivided into smaller segments which function in the same

kind of way as they do; each of these represents a morpheme. A morpheme may be

divined as a minimal unit of grammatical analysis (Lyons, 1968:181; Matthews,

1974:11-12).

According to Stageberg (1971:85), a morpheme is a short segment of

language that meets three criteria:

1. It is a word, or a part of a word that has meaning.

2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of

its meaning or without meaningless remainders.

3. It occurs in differing verbal environment with a relatively stable

meaning.

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According to Haspelmath (2001:16), morphemes can be defined as the

smallest meaningful constituents of a linguistic expression. The words are easily

segmented. For example, the word nonton (watch), both the prefix n- and the stem

tonton represent a morpheme. In the most cases, the relation between form and

meaning is quite straight forward (simple): parts of word forms bear different

meaning.

Example: tulis ‘write’ n-ulis ‘to write di-tulis ‘written’ tulis-in ‘write it’

cuci ‘wash’ ň-uci ‘to wash’ di-cuci ‘washed’ cuci-in ‘wash it’

bacé ‘read’ m-bacé ‘to read’ di-bacé ‘read’ baca-in ‘read it’

From the theories above, this research uses the theory of morpheme according

to Haspelmath. This research defined a morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of

linguistic.

2.2.1 Kinds of Morpheme

1. Free Morpheme

According to C Stageberg (1971:87), a free morpheme is one that can be

uttered with meaning. Free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as an

independent word; it cannot be attached to another morpheme or word such as makan

(eat), gede (big), temen (friend), and others.

Francis Katamba stated in his book (1993: 41) that many words

contain a root standing on its own. Roots, which are capable of standing

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independently, are called free morpheme, for example:

Free morpheme

péntu (door) balé (bed) laki (man)

jalan (walk) péŋén (want) cét (paint)

The free morphemes are examples of lexical morphemes. They are nouns,

adjectives, verbs, or adverbs.

paŋkéŋ (room) maré (mad) kasi (give) bəntar (a moment)

tési (spoon) sənəŋ (happy) tukər (change)

péci (Muslims hat) bau (smell) joget (dance)

əno? (girl) konèng (yellow) makan (eat)

2. Bound Morpheme

According to C Stageberg (1971:87), bound morpheme cannot be uttered

alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word.

In other words, bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an

independent word, but must be attached to another morpheme or word. For example,

affixes such as –an, in jual-an (sell), tidur-an (lay) and another are always bounds.

This research defined a free morpheme as a morpheme that can stand alone

independently and has lexical meaning. A bound morpheme is a morpheme that

cannot stand alone, it must be attached to another morpheme and has grammatical

meaning.

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2.3 Word

The definition of word according Richard (1985:21) word is the smallest of

the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing.

According to Matthews (1997:37) traditionally, a word is the smallest of units

that make up a sentence, and marked as such in writing. Word is unit of language that

comes meaning and consists of one or more morphemes which are linked more or

less tightly together and has a phonetically value, typically a word will consist of root

or stem and zero or more affixes word can be combine to create phrase, clause, and

sentence.

Based on Fromkin and Rodman (1998:67), word is a particular string of sound

which is united with a meaning or a unit of languages that symbolize or communicate

meaning. So if we learn about word, we learn both the sound and their related

meaning.

This research uses the theory of word according to Matthews. In classifying

the data, this theory is useful. This research defined a word as something that should

be unit of language that has meaning, consists of one or more morphemes which has a

phonetically value and part of a sentence.

2.4 Allomorph

According to Payne (1997a:20-21), an allomorph is one of two or more

complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or

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morphological environments. The allomorphs of a morpheme are derived from

phonological rules or morphophonemic rules that may apply to that morpheme.

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1998:295), an allomorph is an alternate

phonetic form of a morpheme. According to O’Grady (1997:120), an allomorph is the

variant forms of a morpheme.

From all those theories above, this research uses the theory of allomorph

according to Payne. This research defined an allomorph as one of many

complementary morphs which show a morpheme in different environment and the

example of allomorph is found in the pronunciation of the plural morpheme –s in

English. In Betawi language, the example of allomorph is found in the pronunciation

of the prefix nasal N-. This prefix nasal has five allomorphs, /m/, /n/, /ň/, /ŋ/ and /ŋə/.

tanya - /nanya/ (to ask)

bawa - /mbawa/ (to bring)

cari - /ňari/ (to look for)

ambil - /ŋambil/ (to take)

rusak - ŋərusak (to breake)

2.5 Affixes

According to Haspelmath (2001:18), word-forms in an inflectional paradigm

generally share (at least) one longer morpheme with a concrete meaning and are

distinguished from each other that they, in addition, contain different shorter

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morphemes with an abstract meaning are called affixes. Based on the position of

bound morphemes against free morphemes, these affixation processes can be differed

from prefixes, infixes, suffixes and circumfixes. This research will discuss prefixes,

suffixes and circumfixes.

According to C Stageberg (1971:91), an affix is a bound morpheme that

occurs before or after a base. There are two kinds of affixation, prefixes and suffixes,

both of which researchers have already met in passing. C Stageberg (1971:92) stated

that prefixes are those bound morpheme that occurs before a base, as in m-bəli (to

buy), Pə-maèn (player). Prefix is an affix that is joined before a root or stem.

Here are kind of prefixes in Betawi language:

a. Prefix nasal N- ‘active transitive’

b. Prefix di- ‘passive’

c. Prefix kə- ‘unintentional’

d. Prefix bə- ‘intransitive’

e. Prefix sə- ‘nominal’

f. Prefix pə- ‘agent’

Stageberg (1971:91) also states that suffixes are bound morphemes that occur

after a base, for example buat-an (made) and tanya-in (ask). There are only two

suffixes in Betawi language, suffix –an, and -in.

Based on Francis Katamba books entitled Morphology (1993: 44). An

affix is a morpheme, which only occurs when it is combining to some other

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morphemes or morpheme such as root or stem or base. There are three types of

affixes:

a. Prefix. A prefix is an affix which is attached before a root or a stem or a

word base like di-, n-, and kə-; di-buké (opened), n-anyé (to ask), kə-buké

(opened unintentional);

b. Suffix. A suffix is an affix combine after a root or a stem or a word base

like –an, -in, and -nya; makan-an (food), bantu-in (help), rumé-nyé (his

house);

c. Infix. An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself.

From the theories above, this research uses theory affixes according to

Haspelmath. This research defined an affix as a shorter morpheme with abstract

meaning and can occur after, before or after and before a root.

According to Beard (1998:62), circumfixes are affixes that come in two parts.

One attaches to the front of the word, and the other to the back, for example in Betawi

language, kə-…-an. It applies to the root gədè (big) to form a noun kəgədèyan (too

big).

Affix morpheme can also be divided in to two major functional

categories, namely derivational affixes and inflectional affixes.

2.5.1 Inflectional and Derivational Affixes

Such bound grammatical morphemes are called inflectional morphemes;

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they never change the syntactic category of the words or morphemes to which

they are combine. They are always combining to complete words, stated by

Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman in their book entitled An Introduction to

Language (1998: 91).

For examples:

N- ‘active’ tulis ‘write’ (V) n-ulis ‘to write’ (V)

kə- ‘unintentional’ cuci ‘wash’ (V) kə-cuci ‘washed unintentional’ (V)

di- ‘passive’ bagi ‘give’ (V) di-bagi ‘is given’ (V)

-in ‘causative’ baca ‘read’ (V) baca-in ‘ask someone to read’ (V)

Derivation patterns commonly change the word class of the base lexeme-

i.e. nouns can be derived from verbs, adjectives from nouns, and so on.

Derivation is not relevant to the syntax, which stated by Haspelmath on his book

entitled Understanding Morphology (2002: 68).

For example:

1. Denimonal verbs (N-V)

kabar ‘news’ kabarin ‘report’

sikat ‘brush’ ňikat ‘wipe out’

tamu ‘guest’ namu ‘visit’

2. Deadjectival verbs (A-V)

baňak ‘a lot’ baňakin ‘making a lot’

cakəp ‘beautiful’ cakəpin ‘making beautiful’

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puti ‘white’ putiin ‘making white’

2.6 Transposition

According to Andrew Spencer and Arnold M.Zwicky (1998:55) transposition

is another type of derivation which reflects a simple change of category without any

functional change. For example:

a. makan ‘eat’ become makan-an ‘food’ (V-N)

b. sapu ‘broom’ become ň-apu ‘sweep’ (N-V)

c. gəndut ‘fat’ become gəndut-in ‘make fat’ (A-V)

2.7 Morphological Process of Affixes in Betawi Language

According to Matthew (1991:125), a morphological process is a means of

changing a stem to adjust its meaning to fit its syntactic and communicational

context. In the Morphological process of the verbs, there are three categories that the

researcher is going to discuss with their marker: they are verb to verb, noun to verb

and adjective to verb which combine with inflectional affixes or verbal affixes.

2.8 Affixes marking other word class

2.8.1 Noun to verb

Prefixes, Suffix and Circumfixes

1. nasal N- ‘active transitive’ macul from pacul ‘hoe’

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2. bə- ‘intransitive’ bətamu from tamu ‘visitor’

3. di- ‘passive’ dipaku from paku ‘nail’

4. kə- ‘unintentional’ kəcét from cét ‘paint’

5. –in ‘causative’ sapuin from sapu ‘broom’

6. N – in ‘repetitive’ ŋəcétin from cét ‘paint’

7. di – in ‘passive’ dilapin from lap ‘rag’

2.8.2 Adjective to verb

Suffix and Circumfixes

1. –in ‘causative’ panasin from panas ‘hot’

2. N – in ‘repetitive’ ŋitəmin from itəm ‘black’

3. di – in ‘passive’ digədéin from gədé ‘big’

2.9 Word Classes

Word classes in modern linguistics are distinguished largely by using

evidence from distribution and form. A word class is a collection of words, which

have characteristics in common, and which are given a collective name, some

examples are noun, verb and adjective. The position of the word depends on its word

class. There are different classes of phrases, which contain different word

classes (Fabb and Routledge, 1994: 11). Word classes divided into function word

and content word.

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2.9.1 Function word

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1998:67) other syntactic categories

include grammatical words of function word, or a word with grammatical mean. The

membership is fixed and can be listed conjunctions, like and and or, prepositions, like

in and of, articles, like the and a/an, determiners, pronouns, like I and he, and

auxiliaries, like can and will.

2.9.2 Content words

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1998:67), in English, verbs, nouns,

adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary, they are the

content words of a language, which are sometimes called the open class words

because we can and regularly do add new words to these classes.

2.10 Verb

According to Robert Yarber and Marry Laine Yarber (1993: 4),

traditionally a verb is a word that can express action or a state of being and thereby it

tells us what noun or pronoun does or what it is. If the verb tells us what a noun or

pronoun does, it is an action verb: “emak lagi masak noh di dapur (mother cooks in

the kitchen).”

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According to Greenbaum (1991:76), verbal affixes (or, more simply, a main

verb) are a word that can be the main word in a verb phrases and is often the only

verb. Certain affixes are added to nouns or adjectives to form main verbs. Here are a

few common verb affixes with words that exemplify them:

n- ‘active transitive’ : nulis (write), nukər (change), nuang (pour)

bə- ‘intransitive’ : blajar (study), blanja (shopped), bərənang (swim)

di- ‘passive’ ; diambil (take), dibacé (read),

-in ‘causative’ : ikutin (follow), bəliin (buy), bawain (bring)

2.11 Noun

According to Robert E. Yarber and Mary Laine Yarber (1993:2) a noun is a

word used to name something, for instance, a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

According to Sidney Greenbaum (1991:71) a noun is a word than can be the

only or main word in a word phrase. We cannot identify all nouns by their form, but

certain prefix can be added to verbs or adjective to make nouns. Here are few typical

noun prefix with words that exemplify them:

pə- ‘agent’ : pəňaňi, pətani, pəlaut

-an ‘noun’ : maénan, minuman, caéran

According to Bauer (1998:34) a noun is a word that can occur as the subject

or object of verb or the object (complement) of a preposition or noun is a word can be

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modified by an adjective and can be used with determiners. Noun typically refers to

people, animal, places, things or abstraction.

2.12 Adjective

According to Robert E.Yarber and Mary Laine Yarber (1993:8) in writing

there is a word which modifies (or describe) a noun or pronoun. The word is an

adjective, a word that modifies nouns and pronouns.

2.13 Morphophonemic

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1998:295), the rule that determines the

phonetics form of the plural morpheme is a morphophonemic rule, because its

application is determined by both the morphology and the phonology.

According to Payne (1997a:20), a morphophonemic rule has the form of a

phonological rule, but is restricted to a particular morphological environment.

Morphophonemic rules are sensitive to their environment, unlike phonological rules.

Whenever morphological information is required to specify the environment for an

allophonic rule, the rule is morphophonemic.

Morphophonology (also morphophonemic, morphonology) is a branch of

linguistics which studies:

The phonological structure of morphemes.

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The combinatory phonic modifications of morphemes which happen

when they are combined

The alternative series which serve a morphological function.

For example:

The prefix /N-/ has the allomorphs [ŋ] and [ň]:

/n-/ + kasi ŋasi (to give)

/n-/ + campur ňampur (to mix)

From all of the theories above, this research uses theory of morphophonology

according to Payne.

2.14 Productivity

According to Haspemath (200:19) a morphological rule or pattern is said to be

productive if (and to extent that) it can be applied to new bases and new words can be

formed with it.

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