10

CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

11

INTRODUCTION

The Tribal community is 9.5% of the total population of India. Though

they are called by different names in different parts of the country, they have in

common, many socio-economic and cultural characteristic features. In the graded

Socio-economic in equal structure of Indian society, the tribals are at the lowest

rung and being poor, lead a substandard and survival living. The traders, money

lenders, contractors, etc., sordidly exploit the tribals as the latter are innocent and

illiterate. Tribals perpetual indebtedness and alienation of lands aggravated their

misery and affected their peace and happiness. Tribal revolts in the pre and post

independent India have their roots in the inhuman exploitation of tribals.

For The entire social, economic and political justice to this suppressed

segment of the Indian society, the constitution of India envisaged that the state

shall protect the tribals from all the regions, forms of exploitation and take

moresteps to protect the tribals and to promote their educational and

economicinterests. The subject of tribal, in the rural development has drawn the

attention of planners, politicians, academicians, administrators and

philanthropists.

During the era of planning, many strategies have been evolved and

implemented by central and state governments to achieve an all-round

development of tribals. The state government of Andhra Pradesh has

played a pioneering role in the development of its tribals who constitute 9.5 Per

cent of the state population. The milestone in the history of the development of

tribals of the state is the establishment of Girijan Co-operative Corporation in

1956 with the prime objective of uplifting the tribals through marketing and

credit activities. Efficiency in the marketing function of the corporation is

12

sine-qua-none of the magnitude of economic benefits to tribals.

Finance function is one of the determinants of the efficient performance of

marketing function. Efficient management of marketing and Finance is of

paramount importance, if the corporation is to function successfully in attainment

of its goals to bring the maximum benefit to maximum number of tribals.

1.1. Tribals in India

Scheduled Tribe means any tribe or tribal community or part of group

within any tribe or tribal community resident in agency tracts and specified as

such by a public notification by the president of Indian union under clause (1) of

Article 342 of the constitution. The constitution guarantees them certain

reservations in educational and the distribution of tribal population in different

state and Union employment opportunities and the election to state and central

legislature is reserved for the tribals of the state. Both the central and state

governments reserved six per cent of educational and employment opportunities to

them. India has a total tribal population of 8, 43 26,240 which constitutes 9.5%of

the total population as per the census of 2011. The distribution tribal population in

different state and union territories according to 2011 census data presented in

Table 1.1. It may be observed from the table that Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,

Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan account for nearly

three-fourth of entire tribal population in the country.

In a number of States, for example in Nagaland, the tribals constitute only

1.2 per cent of the total tribal population of India. But it accounts for 89.1 per cent

of the population of Nagaland. In Meghalaya, the Tribals constitute 90.2 per cent

of the population of the State having only two per cent of the total tribal

13

population in the country. Again, there area number of States with more tribal

population but covering proportionately less percentage of population in the state.

For example, the tribal population of Andhra Pradesh forms 6.6 Per cent of its

total population.However, interms of absolute numbers, it is nearly five times

higher than the tribal population of Nagaland or nearly three times higher than that

of Meghalaya. Both Nagaland and Meghalaya are tribal states, inhabited by tribal

population of the order of 90 per cent. The population list below shows the region

wise scheduled tribes in India.

Table 1.1 population of the India with compare to other states of the populations.

States Census 2011

Sr. No. State Population Growth Rate Area Sq.km

- India 1210193422 17.64 3287240

1 Uttar Pradesh 199581477 20.09 240928

2 Maharashtra 112372972 15.99 307713

3 Bihar 103804637 25.07 94163

4 West Bengal 91347736 13.93 88752

5 Andhra Pradesh 84665533 11.10 275045

6 Madhya Pradesh 72597565 20.30 308245

7 Tamil Nadu 72138958 15.60 130058

8 Rajasthan 68621012 21.44 342239

9 Karnataka 61130704 15.67 191791

10 Gujarat 60383628 19.17 196024

11 Orissa 41947358 13.97 155707

12 Kerala 33387677 4.86 38863

13 Jharkhand 32966238 22.34 79714

14 Assam 31169272 16.93 78438

15 Punjab 27704236 13.73 50362

14

Source census in India 2011

1.2. The Structure for Tribal Development

At the Country Level

The organizational framework for tribal development derives its basic

structure from the Indian constitution. The Union Ministry of Home Affairs is

responsible for policy formulation and coordination of all tribal development

programmes. It has certain amount of power in regard to allocation of funds in

16 Chhattisgarh 25540196 22.59 135191

17 Haryana 25353081 19.90 44212

18 Delhi 16753235 20.96 1483

19 Jammu and Kashmir 12548926 23.71 222236

20 Uttarakhand 10116752 19.17 53483

21 Himachal Pradesh 6856509 12.81 55673

22 Tripura 3671032 14.75 10486

23 Meghalaya 2964007 27.82 22429

24 Manipur 2721756 18.65 22327

25 Nagaland 1980602 -0.47 16579

26 Goa 1457723 8.17 3702

27 Arunachal Pradesh 1382611 25.92 83743

28 Pondicherry 1244464 27.72 479

29 Mizoram 1091014 22.78 21081

30 Chandigarh 1054686 17.10 114

31 Sikkim 607688 12.36 7096

32 Andamanand Nicobar

Islands

379944 6.68 8249

33 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 342853 55.50 491

34 Daman and Diu 242911 53.54 112

35 Lakshadweep 64429 6.23 32

15

consultation with the planning commission. The planning commission provides

the required analysis and technical support for national development plans

including tribal development.

As part of constitutional requirement, the government created an office of

the commissioner for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in 1951.Besides the

Union Ministry of Home Affairs, other Central Ministries such as Ministries of

Tribal welfare, Rural Development, Education and Culture, Social Welfare,

Health and Family Welfare, Housing and Cooperation and Civil supplies are also

participating in tribal development.

The Commission for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes was set up in

1978 to consider the magnitude of the problems faced by scheduled castes and

scheduled tribals. The commission is required to submit an annual report to the

president detailing on its activities with suitable recommendations. It may also

submit reports to the government at any time whenever it is necessary.

1.3 At the State Level

The State Governments and Union Territories have separate departments

to look after the Welfare of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other

backward classes. In Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa separate

ministries of Tribal welfare have been formed as provided in Article 164 of the

constitution exclusively for tribal development. A cabinet sub-committee under

the chairmanship of the Chief Minister has been constituted in each state having

sizeable tribal population for guiding developmental programmes in tribal areas.

The tribal welfare Departments have been strengthened in all state and union

territories. Besides the cabinet sub-committee, a High-level committee, with the

chief secretary as its chairman and the tribal development commissioner as

16

member secretary, has been setup for speedy decision making

oninterdepartmentalproblems. Tribal Advisory Councils are functioning in certain

states which advise on such matters pertaining to the welfare and advancement of

the scheduled Tribes in the State as may be referred to them by the Governor.

1.4 Tribal Sub-Plans at District Level

The special multi-purpose tribal blocks form the basis of tribal sub-plan

which was converted into Tribal development blocks in course of time. Later,

according to its planning, coordination and implementation of long-term

developmental programmes, a new strategy was evolved for tribal development in

pursuance of which six pilot projects viz. tribal development agencies were

launched towards the end of the fourth plan. The tribal Sub-plan strategy followed

during the sixth plan is being implemented through the integrated, tribal

development project. A sub-plan, part of district plan of predominantly tribal

populated areas, covering several tribal development blocks dealing with problem

of the tribal people is an outline of the various progammes, physical inputs,

financial outlay, area and programme specific infrastructures in the given district.

All activities of various government, semi government, financial institutions etc.,

are integrated in the sub-plan so as to present a total picture of the tribal region.

The project authority, namely, integrated tribal development agency has

been constituted for each ITDP with the District Collector as its chairman, the

district heads of departments as members and the project administrator as the

member- secretary. This authority brings in an element of collective leadership.

The agency becomes responsible for all-round development of that area.

After independence, a number of national and state-level voluntary

agencies have been working for the promotion of the interests of the tribals. Their

17

activities mostly concentrate on education, medical relief and cooperation.

Financial investments in the successive five-year plans have progressively

increased. In the new sub-plan, financial provisions are made for state plans,

Central Plans, special central assistance for tribal development and institutional

finance.

Tribal Development in India

With a view to preventing the exploitation of tribals by various sections of

people, the British government enacted some protective legislations the legislative

measures taken up by British rulers were: (a) Girijan and Visakhapatnam Act,

1839 ensured the administration of justice, Civil as well as Criminal, and for

collection of revenue in the agency areas of Girijan and Visakhapatnam districts in

the Madras province. (b) The Scheduled Districts Act, 1874 specified the

scheduled district in the country and also empowered the government to appoint

officers and regulate the procedures to be followed by them in enforcing the

enactments.

It also empowered the officers to administer the Civil and Criminal justice

and supervise the Settlement and collection of public revenue. (c) The Chota

Nagpur Encumbered Estate Act, 1876, the Chota Nagpur Land-lords and Tenant

procedure Act, 1879, and the Chota Nagpur commutation Act, 1897 were enacted

to remove the hardships of tribals in Chota Nagpur. (d) Tenancy Act, 1898 was

enacted to protect the interests of tribals on land. (e) The agency Tracts Interests

and Land Transfer Act, 1917 was enacted to regulate the rate of interest and to

prevent the transfer of land in the agency areas. (f) The Government of India Act,

1919 which consists of a section 32-A (2) empowered the Governor General in the

council to declare any territory to tribal people resulted in occasional but violent

18

revolts in the tribal areas1.

After the transfer of power and the formation of the Indian Republic, much

attention has been shown to the problem of scheduled tribes and scheduled areas:

(1) In the constitution, the expression, scheduled areas means such areas as the

president of the Indian union may declare to be scheduled areas. (2) The president

may at any time by order) Direct that the whole or any specified part of scheduled

area shall cease to be scheduled area or a part of such an area. (b) Alter but only

by way of rectification of boundaries of any scheduled areas. (c) on any alteration

of a state or on the admission into the union or the establishment of a new state,

declare any territory not previously included in any state to be, or to form part of a

scheduled area; and (d) any such order may contain such incidental and

consequential provisions as appear to the president to be necessary and proper, but

same as aforesaid the order made under sub-paragraph (1) of this paragraph shall

not be varied by any subsequent order.

The approach of the Government of India for tribal development is that the

tribals could be given full play to their talents so that they could develop on their

own lines while retaining their rich heritage and progressing in lines of their

native genius. Article 45 of the constitution of India envisages that "the state shall

promote with special care the educational and economic interests of scheduled

tribes and protect them from social injustices and all forms of exploitation"2.

Similarly, Article 244 under the fifth schedule empowers the president of India to

declare any area, where there is a substantial population of tribal people, as a tribal

area. The Governors of various states are also given certain powers where by the

protection of the rights of tribals in land, allotment of waste land and their

protection from exploitations, by the money lenders may be assured3.

19

Besides providing funds for development of tribal areas, the central

Government lays down guidelines to be followed by the State Governments in the

process of implementation of various schemes and their priorities. The funds

provided by the Central Government are not subjected to legislative control but

are under the mandate of Central Government with the State government as an

executive agency. In keeping with the Spirit of the constitution, the five-year plans

envisaged the policies and programs for the tribal development.

1.5 Assessment of the Tribal Development in Various Five Year Plans

The programmes for the socio-economic development of the tribal people

are based on the philosophy that they should be in response to tribals own urge for

better standard of living and development of their culture.

The First Five-year Plan (1951-56), however, did not envisage categorical

approach to tribal welfare. Development of education, communication systems in

tribal areas, provision of medical and housing facilities to tribals were the major

programmes under taken during the p1an4. Thus, the government of India spent

an amount of Rs. 3.6 crores for economic upliftment of tribals and Rs. 6.5 crores

towards development of roads and communications in the states of Andhra

Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.

During the plan period, the government established 4,000 schools, 653

forest labour co-operatives and 111 cottage industries. 312 multi-purpose co-

operatives were also formed in Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh States for the

economic upliftment of the tribals.

TheSecond Five-year Plan (1956-61), emphasized the economic development in

the fields of agriculture, cottage industries and forest cooperatives. The most

20

important strategy of the government was that it established as many as 43 multi-

purpose tribal development blocks throughout the country as centrally sponsored

schemes. These blocks were designed to promote rapid improvement in the

economic and social development of tribal people by specially selecting

developmental programmes, the programmes initiated by these blocks were farm

cultivation in the place of shifting cultivation, improvement of agriculture,

provision of medical and health services, development of tribal art and crafts,

establishment of community welfare schemes, digging of drinking water wells,

development of cottage industries, organization of cooperative, vocational and

technical training to tribals5. Besides the organization of tribal development

blocks, the Government of Andhra Pradesh established a separate agency, namely,

the Girijan Co-operative Corporation limited, for marketing minor forest produce.

Inspired by this, the states of Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh have also

followed this example and they have set up marketing co-operative for the tribal

people in their states in the years to follow. During this period, the Government of

India spent an amount of Rs. 42.92 crores as against an outlay of Rs.47 crores

under various tribal development programmes.

The Third Five-year Plan (1961-66), priority was given to the opening of tribal

development blocks as overall units of development. The criterion for the

establishment of a block has been relaxed, according to which a block may be

opened in a scheduled area or in a non-scheduled area where the tribal population

constitute two-thirds or more of the total population. The number of tribal

development blocks was increased to 415 by the end of the plan periods.6`"In

addition to this, more development programmes were taken up. They included

land reclamation, forest conservation, and minor irrigation, supply of agricultural

21

inputs and development of animal husbandry.

As regards education, the plan stressed the provision of free scholarships,

stipends and hostels at middle and secondary stages7.The working experience of

the tribal development blocks during the third five year plan indicated that the

block with an average population of 25,000 was found to be too small to provide

several of the services which were essential for a bursting development of the

tribal people.

The Fourth Five-year plan (1969-74), during the intervening period (1966-69)

of third and fourth five year plans. The developmental programmes were

undertaken under three annual plans envisaged for the tribal development areas8.

Accordingly, in 1971-72, six pilot projects were established in four states, i.e., one

each in Andhra Pradesh (in Srikakulam and Vizianagaram) and one in Bihar (in

Singhbum), two in Madhya Pradesh (both in Baster) and three in Orissa (two in

Koraput and the other in Ganjam) known as Tribal Development Agencies were

started as centrally sponsored schemes to develop the tribal areas by integrating

various programmes implemented under the general sector.

Each project had an outlay of Rs. 2 crores and these funds were in addition

to the tribal development block outlay. The core economic programmes

implemented by these projects were agricultural development, horticultural, land

irrigation, control of shifting cultivation, settlement of land less tribals and animal

husbandry. The project undertook activities like construction of arterial and link

roads. Each one of these projects intended to cover about 16,000 tribal families or

50,000 tribal populations. During the plan period, Rs.44 crores was released for

these projects.

During the Fifth Five-year plan (1974-78) The fifth five year plan though

22

originally stated to cover 1974-79 period, was foreclosed a year in advance, with

the advent of Janata Government in 1977. The objective was to introduce the

rolling plan from 1st April, 1978, with predictions for the next seven years.

However, congress (I) was back in power in 1980 and the five year plans were

reintroduced thereafter. There was marked deviation in the tribal development

strategy from that of the earlier one. Based on the recommendations of the task

force committee, the three-tier development structure at micro and macro levels

was introduced.

The aim is that the area development and tribal development are suitably

intermeshed into an integrated tribal development programme. The new strategy

intends to cover two types of tribal areas namely, (i), scheduled area or other area

of having more than 50 per cent of the tribal concentration and (ii) non-scheduled

areas with large but isolated tribal population. The strategy for areas of tribal

concentration culminated in the concept of sub-plan for these areas. During 1974-

75 sub- plans were prepared by '11 states. They were Andhra Pradesh, Assam,

Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur,

Rajasthan, Orissa and Tripura.

The sub-plan divisions of each state was divided into various integrated

Tribal Development projectareas taking into account the administrative

boundaries, topography play level of economic development, ethnic composition,

natural resources for potential development, etc. These units are designated as

Integrated Tribal Development projects. Thus, 178 Integrated Tribal Development

projects were started in 16 states and two union territories. Out of Rs.190 crores of

plan outlay from the Central Government, only Rs. 112.35 crores was spent on the

development programmes9. Besides, various state governments spent Rs. 6.44

23

crores under the sub-plan programmes. Of these, 29 per cent was spent on

agriculture and allied activities, 27 per cent on the development of irrigation and

power, 22 per cent on social and community services, 10 per cent for the

development of transport and communications, 5 per cent on cooperation, 4 per

cent on industries and 3 per cent on economic and general services.

The Sixth Five-year plan (1980-85), laid down that the tribal identity and tribal

way of life should be preserved in a manner consistent with the tribals aspirations

for development. It provided that the sub-plan approach which operated through

tribal development projects during the preceding plan would continue. Further, the

plan envisaged as fourfold policy for the development of the scheduled tribes.

Integrated services at the delivery point of beneficiary, development of services

from the bottom-upwards, development of skills to diversity of occupation and

introduction of latest technology based on local material and local skills

constituted the major aspects of the policy10

. In order to speed up the results, the

planning process was reoriented in favour of family oriented schemes with a

sharper focus on target groups. The plan laid emphasis on three dimensional

approaches to tribal development namely,

(i) Area approach

(ii) Target group approach and

(iii) Economic approach.

The first approach includes development of natural resources and social

infrastructure. The target group approach is meant for these tribals who do not

benefit from area approach. Under the third approach, programmes are to be

enlarged to make them self-reliant without-interfering with their traditional ways

of life and culture11

.

24

The various programmes in the sixth-plan are intended to achieve the

objective of narrowing down the gap between the levels of development of tribal

areas and other areas and also to bring more rapidly a qualitative change in the

tribal communities. Due emphasis has been given to create full employment, to

extend education and health facilities. Another significant programme was

resettlement of tribal engaged in shifting cultivation in 233 tribal blocks in 62

districts of various states in India by providing a package of services required on

the whole. It is contemplated to cover 75 per cent of the tribal population by

various development programmes as against 63 per cent by the end of the fifth

plan. The Government of India allocated Rs. 485 crores and spent the entire

amount in the sixth Five-year plan for various programmes. As regards tribal sub-

plan programmes, although the plan's emphasis was shifted from area based

infrastructure to family oriented programmes, there was still considerable

investment in such sectors as power, irrigation, roads and communications and

construction of building for administrative purposes, health and educational

services. Of the total outlay, 42 per cent is accounted for by the infrastructure

development in irrigation, power and road sectors.

Besides, there were group based programmes like LAMPS (Large Sized

Agricultural Multi-Purpose Societies), for bringing the tribal into the cooperative

movement and to eliminate money lenders, middle men and forest contractors.

Organization of LAMPS was taken up in the fifth plan itself. So far, more than

2,000 such LAMPS have been set up with about 58 per cent of tribal members12

.

The performance of these societies has been uneven and many of them are with

management problems.

25

The Seventh Five-year plan (1985-90), focuses attention on the economic

development of tribal areas as well as tribal families. Development of skills and

technology, exploitation of natural resources are the priority of aspects of tribal

area development. The tribal sub-plan programmes are intended to uplift at last 30

lacks tribal families during the plan period. Strengthening of large sized

Agricultural multipurpose societies (LAMPS) in tribal areas is one of the major

tasks of the seventh plan. Much emphasis is laid on the coordination of tribal

development corporations of various states. The idea of establishing a national

level body, namely, Federation of Tribal Development Corporation (TRIFED) in

New Delhi, during this plan period is highly appreciable.

The plan also stressed the need for developing alternative

programmes to the tribals for their livelihood instead of the present practice of

'shifting cultivation' by many a tribal. It also stressed the need for integration of

the administration of various tribal development programmes at Integrated Tribal

Development projects (ITDP) level. Establishment of income generating

programmes for tribal women also was stressed by the plan.

It recommended to the state governments to start an organization similar to

that of Kanya Shikshak Parishad which was established at Chindwara in Madhya

Pradesh for imparting education and training for tribal women. The plan

recognized the contributions of non-government voluntary organizations in tribal

development. Hence, it decided to encourage such type of voluntary

organizations. The special central assistance for Tribal sub-plan has been fixed at

Rs.756 crores for seventh five years plan.

Eight Five-year Plans (1992-97), the Eighth plan for India was ordered of

26

Rs.314576.43 crores. Out of which a lump sum provision of Rs.18311.93

croreswas made for development of tribal areas. Problems of scheduled tribes was

tackled by suitable stream-lining of the mechanism of planning and

implementation of programmes of special component plan, tribal sub-plan, and the

schemas specifically targeted for the welfare and development of scheduled tribes.

The strategy of special component plan for scheduled tribes, tribal sub-plan was

reviewed inter-alia to make them effective instruments of planning to ensure real

and tangible flow of benefits to the target group, both individuals and families.

The attempts during the eighth plan were to rationalize the scheme to: (i)

Provide guidance with reference employment opportunities and offering

appropriate incentives for courses, which have a large market demand. (ii)

Improve the performance, if necessary by prescribing minimum standards and (iii)

Identify causes for inter-caste tribe variation in availing benefits under the scheme

and chalk out appropriate remedial action.

Ninth Five-year plan (1997-02), the main objective of this plan was to intensify

the efforts to bridge the gap between Scheduled Tribes and the rest of the

population. An outlay of Rs.775 crores was provided for the Ninth plan. The

Ninth plan commits to empower the scheduled tribes as the agents of socio-

economic change and development.

Therefore, a major shift is visualized in the approach as it envisages

advancement of those socially disadvantaged groups through a process of

empowerment13

. The empowerment of these groups, as envisaged, will be a long-

drawn process, with support policies and programmes directed towards

empowering the socially disadvantaged Groups to be the active partners and

partakers of the country's development rather than contributing as passive

27

recipients of various developmental benefits.

The approach towards empowering these groups in the Ninth plan is

holistic in nature so as to accomplish all-round development of these weaker

sections with an inter-spectral approach and inputs from both the governmental

and non-governmental agencies.

The strategy to be adopted during the ninth five year plan was resolute to:

1) Create an environment that is conducive for scheduled tribes to exercise their

rights freely, enjoy their privileges and be able to lead a life with confidence and

dignity.

2) Adopt a three-pronged strategy of social empowerment, economic

empowerment and social justice in empowering these disadvantaged groups.

3) Ensure removal of disparities, eliminate exploitation and suppression and

provide protection to the disadvantaged groups.

4) Ensure the developmental benefits to 'Reach the un reached‘ through equitable

distribution and with social justice.

5) Ensure participation of the socially disadvantaged groups in the process of

planning not merely as the beneficiaries but to take part effectively in the

formulation of the need-based programmes, their implementation, monitoring and

supervision.

6) Accelerate the on-going process of improving the socio-economic status of the

disadvantaged groups through effective implementation of various policies and

programmes and thus bring them on par with rest of the society.

The above strategy adopted so far 194 ITDAs, 252 MADA pockets, 78

clusters, and 75 micro projects for primitive tribal groups have been identified in

state and union Territories of the country.

28

Tenth Five-year plan (2002-07),an outlay of Rs.1200 crores is provided for the

tenth plan for the welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, out of which

an amount of Rs.1044.16 crores is provided for SCs and Rs.155.84 crores for STs

for both on-going and new schemes. The major programmes wise details are

indicated below for STs.

Eleventh five year plan (2007-12) the data will be coming soon after the budget

session is completed. The total population of Andhra Pradesh as per 2011 census

is 84,665,533 of which male and female are 42,509,881 and 42,155,652

respectively.

The plan had aimed at achieving faster and more inclusive growth. Rapid

GDP growth rate target at 9% per annum was regarded necessary for two reasons.

First, to generate the income and employment opportunities that were needed for

improving the living standard for the bulk of the population and secondly, to

generate the resources needed for financing social sector programmes,aimed at

reducing poverty. Aggregate saving and investment rates, particularly in the

private sector, the strength of our economy as it enters the 12th

plan period.

Table - 1.2 Details of major programs in five years plans (in crores)

S. No Programmes On-going

Scheme

New

Schemes

Total

1 Education 28.58 62.90 91.48

2 Economic development 0.40 1.82 2.22

3 Housing and other schemes 0.00 3.23 3.23

4 Tribal sub-plan 50.16 0.00 50.16

5 HillArea development

programmes

8.75 0.00 8.75

Total 87.89 67.95 155.84

Source: planning commission report on Welfare of STs Government of IndiaNew Delhi

29

1.6 Assessment of the Tribal Development in Andhra Pradesh

The assessment of tribals in Andhra Pradesh now has the largest

concentration of tribals in southern India. The forest- clad hill ranges and the

forests flanking the mighty Godavari and Krishna Rivers constitute the traditional

habitat of as many as 33 forest tribes. It is in this isolated habitat that each tribe

has fashioned its artefacts, manifests and socio-facts in consonance with their

environs and according to its genius. However, the identical environment and long

interaction among the tribes who shared the same habitat in harmony for several

centuries resulted in certain degree of unity within diversity in ways of life of the

co-existing tribes of a cultural region.

On the basis of geographical propinquity and cultural affinity, the tribal

areas of the state are therefore divided into seven cultural zones viz., (1)

VamsadharaVegavathi basin: (2) Machkund-Gosthani basin : (3) Godavari basin :

(4) Penganga Pranahita basin: (5) Nallamalai region : (6) Rayalaseema : and (7)

Guntur- Nellore seema.

Andhra Pradesh is one of the States having large tracts of hilly and agency

areas and sizeable scheduled tribe population. According to 2001 census, the

scheduled tribe population is 50, 24,104 lacks constituting 6.6 per cent in the total

population of the State. It may observed from the table 1.2 that out of total

50,24,104 lacks of total scheduled tribe population of the State 25,48,295 lacks are

male and 24,75,809 lacks are female. In Andhra Pradesh the schedule area

comprises of 29,683 square kilometres, which forms 10.7 per cent of the total

geographical area of the state and 11.00 per cent of the total scheduled area of the

country. The tribal villages are inhabited by a variety of tribes. The important

tribal communities are presented in table 1.4.

30

Table-1.3

District wise distribution of Scheduled Tribes Population in Andhra Pradesh

S.

No. District Males Females

Total Tribal

Population

Percentage of ST

Populations

to Total

Populations

1 Srikakulam 75,284 75,965 1,51,249 6.0

2 Vijayanagaram 1,06,079 1,08,760 2,14,839 9.6

3 Visakhapatnam 2,78,399 2,79,173 5,57,572 14.3

4 East Godavari 95,234 96,327 1,91,561 3.9

5 West Godavari 47,887 48,772 96,659 2.5

6 Krishna 55,201 52,410 1,07,611 2.6

7 Guntur 2,08,157 1,06,101 1,02,056 4.7

8 Prakasam 60,670 57,571 118241 3.9

9 Nellore 1,23,554 1,18,703 2,42,257 9.1

10 Kurnool 36,097 33,538 69,635 2.0

11 Anantapur 65,722 61,439 1,2t,161 3.5

12 Cuddapha 31,643 29,728 61,371 2.4

13 Chittor 65,048 63,037 1,28,085 3.4

14 Rangareddy 75,054 71,003 1,46,057 4.1

15 Hyderabad 17,862 16,698 34,560 0.9

16 Nijamabad 83,135 82,600 1,65,735 7.1

17 Medak 68,966 65,567 1,34,533 5.0

18 Mehaboobnagar 143115 1,35,587 2,78 702 7.9

19 Nalgonda 1,78,373 1,64,303 3,42,676 10.6

31

20 Warangal 2,35,451 2,22 228 4,57,679 14.1

21 Khammam 3,44,027 3,38,590 6,82,617 26.5

22 Karim Nagar 45,807 44,829 90,636 2.6

23 Adilabad 2,09,586 2,06,925 4,16,511 16.7

All Districts 25,48,295 24,75,809 50,241104 6.6

Source: Census of India 2001

Table-1.4 List of the Scheduled Tribes in Andhra Pradesh

S. No Name of the Tribes S. No Name of the Tribes

1 Andh

18

Koya, Gond, Rajah, Rashokoya,

LingadhariKoya (Ordinary),

Kottukoya, BhineKoya, Raja

Koya

2 Begata 19 —Kulia

3 Bhil

20

Mali (excluding Adilabad,

Hyderabad,

Karimnagar, Mahboobnagar,

Medak, Nalgonda,

Nizambad and Warangal,

Khammam,

4 Chenchu, Chenchwar 21 ManneDora

5 Gadaba 22 MukhaDora,Nooka Dora

6

Goncl, Naikpod, Raj Gond

23

Nayaks (in the Agency Tracts)

7 Gouda (in the Agency tracts) 24 Pardhan

32

8 Hill Reddi 25 Poria, ParangiPoria

9 Jatapu. 26 ReddiDora.

10 Kammara 27 Rona, Rena

11 Kattunavakan

28

Savara, KapuSavara,

MalivaSavara,

KhuttoSavara

12 Kolam, Mannervarlu 29 Sugali, Lambada

13 Konda Dora

30

Thoti 9 in Adilabad, Hyderabad,

Karimnagar,Khammam,

Mahaboobnagar 7 Warangal

districts)

14 Kondakapu 31 Valmiki (in the Agency tracts)

15 KondaReddi 32 Yanadi

16

Kondh, Kodi, Kodhu, Desava

Kondh, DongriaKondha,

KuttiaKondha, TikriaKondha,

YenetyKondh

33 Yerukula

17

Kotia, Nentho Oriya, Bartika,

Dhulia, Dulia, Holva, Paiko

Putiya, Sanrona, Sidhopaiko

Source: TribalResearch and Cultural Centre, Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.

1.7 Tribal history

The tribal people spread over the different parts of the country are called

by different names (i.e. Varanasi, Fahari, Adimajati, Anusuchiti, Janajati, Girijan,

etc.). Among these terms, adivasi is known most extensively and Anusuchiti,

33

Janajati or scheduled tribe is the constitutional name covering all the names, the

term 'Tribe' is derived from a Latin root, the middle English term ‗Tribuz‘

meaning the three divisions into which the early Romans were grouped, came to

evolve into the modern English 'Tribe'.

According to the anthropologist and sociologists of the Western, the term

'tribe which denoted "a race of people‖, is now applied especially to a primary

aggregated group of people in a primitive or barbarous condition, under a

headman or chief. A tribe may be defined as a social group usually with definite

area, dialect, cultural homogeneity and unifying social organisation'15

. Wherever

they live the tribals have many socio-economic characteristic features in common.

They live in remote hills and forests and have been leading a life of their own for

centuries, generally uninfluenced by the main currents of development in the

outside world. They have their own culture and tradition which are different from

those of the non-tribal. According to Haimendorf, there are no people in India

poorer in material possessions than the Jungle chenchu tribes. Bows and arrows,

knives and axes, digging sticks etc., constitute their entire belongings16

.

Most of them are unambitious simple, honest, innocent, ignorant, and lead

a food gathering and pastoral life. The tribal people suffer from malnutrition and

under-nutrition17

. However, they very much like to enjoy the forest life with its

wild profusion of tinted flowers, murmuring brooks, the enchanting streams and

the green hills18

. Thus, the basic characteristic features of the tribal are poverty

and misery but they are a highly contented people, not worrying at all about their

future.

They are cut off from the progress of the plain areas and 'remain in the

marooned camps, the isolated world of their own (in thick forests and hills) 19

. The

34

tribals depend on a subsistence of economy and they adopt primitive technology

which fits well with their economical surroundings. Low fertility of soil,

extremely inadequate irrigation facilities, and primitive and outdated methods of

cultivation etc., is the inhibitory factors for the growth of tribal economy20

. About

82 per cent of tribals are engaged in agriculture.

The technology adopted by the tribals is simple and primitive and their

economy shows endless variation from the shifting cultivation to settle cultivation

in India. From the Malayas of Malabar Coast to the Nagas of Nagaland, many a

tribal group resorts to shifting cultivation as a means of livelihood. It is called by

different names by different tribal groups‘ inhabiting the various states of our

country. It is called `Kumrit by the Malaya‘s, Podu by the tribes of Andhra

Pradesh, Bewar, by the Baigas of Madhya Pradesh and `Jhum' by the Khasis of

Asam and Nagas of Nagaland.

After selecting the suitable parches, the tribals cut the trees and clear the

bushes and leave them on the Podu patches to dry for about one month. When the

branches are sufficiently dried up, they set fire to them. As early as the monsoon

season begins, seeds are nibbled or broadcast in these podu fields for two or three

years and after the patches are exhausted, they are abandoned and another plot is

selected to repeat the process. Owing to the low fertility of soil, scant irrigation

facilities, primitive agriculture practices, etc., the income of the tribes from

agriculture is too meagre to sustain them even for a few months in a year. Frances

sinha and sanjay Sinha's study reveals that agricultural income for a majority of

cultivating tribal households was barely at subsistence level-below Rs.800 per

year21

. The incidence of unemployment is very high among tribals. For most of

the days in a year they remain without work. D.V.Singh and J.P.Bhats survey has

35

brought to light that in the hill areas of Himachal Pradesh, a tribal male worker

was found unemployed on an average for 151 days on marginal farms, 128 days

on small farms and 129 days on medium farms. Unemployment among female

tribal labour was estimated at 157 days, 130 days, and 160 days per annum on

marginal, small and medium farms, respectively22

. Consequently, they had to lead

a substandard and below subsistence level of living and their income from

agriculture and manual labour is too inadequate to sustain them round the year.

They supplement their income by going on hunting and fishing23

.

1.8 Tribal Development in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has a tribal population 50, 24,104 lacks which constitutes

6.6 per cent of the total population of the state24

. Thirty three communities of

tribes are living in the state, of them 63.2 per cent are living in the scheduled areas

comprising 10.4 per cent of the total area of the state (29,785 sq. kms out of 2,

75,100 sq. kms). The scheduled areas are spread over 11 districts, namely,

Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, East and West Godavari, Khammam,

Warangal, Karimnagar, Adilabad, Mahaboobnagar and Kurnool. The rest of the

tribals in the state (36.8 per cent) are living in non-scheduled areas. Although,

they are found in the remaining 12 districts of the state, their concentration is

significant only in Nellore, Guntur and Nalgonda districts. The Government of

Andhra Pradesh has taken up several welfare measures for the socio-economic

upliftment of tribals since its formation in 1956. The amounts spent by the state

during various five year plan periods are as follows:

It should be mentioned, at the outset, that the planning and implementation

of various developmental programmes suffered from the territorial readjustments

following the bifurcation of the composite state of Madras to form the Andhra

36

State in 1953 and the formation of Andhra Pradesh by a major part of the east,

while integrating the state of Hyderabad in 1956. During the first plan (1951-56),

the state spent Rs. 41.6 lacks on tribal development. The break-up of heads of

expenditure is not available.

The second plan (1956-61) laid much emphasis on the development of roads and

communications in the tribal areas followed by social and community services

(education, medical, development of tribal colonies, etc.) and agriculture and

allied services. A notable feature of the second plan is the setting up of a credit-

cum-marketing agency in the state sector. The Andhra scheduled tribe

Development and Finance Corporation came into existence in 1956 with head

office at Visakhapatnam and affiliated primary cooperative marketing societies in

various tribal areas. This reformed as the Girijan Cooperative Corporation

Limited. A widespread attempt was made during the third plan (1961-66) to

ensure the development of all the tribal areas of the state, however, the third plan

failed to achieve its targets and the total amounts spent during this period

decreased by 28.5 per cent over the preceding plan. The major emphasis on the

development of roads and communications continued and nearly half of the total

expenditure was spent on this. Development of agriculture and allied services and

provision of social and community services were the other priority sectors.

Strangely, development of irrigation facilities and supply of power were neglected

during this plan.

The three annual plans (1966-69) continued the schemes which

were initiated in the preceding plans. Besides, some schemes relating to fishers,

housing, digging of wells, education were also taken up during these plans.

37

The introduction of tribal sub-plan concept during the fourth plan (1969-

74) brought a considerable change in the plan expenditure. Provision of social and

community services was predominantly taken up during the plan. On account of

the naxalite movement in Srikakulam district during 1968-69, the state

government felt the need for intensification of its development programmes in

social and community sector services. Nearly Four-Fifths of the plan outlay (Rs.

SC 766.89 lacks out of the total of Rs. 977.77 lacks) was spent in this sector. The

scheduled Tribes Housing Cooperative Corporation was established by the state.

The projects are implementing Irrigation and power (Rs. I, 607.55 lacks),

whichwas the priority sector in the fifth plan (1974-78). It laid, more or less, equal

emphasis on the development of agriculture and allied services (Rs. 1,368.54

lacks) and provision of social and community services (Rs. 1,350.6 lacks). The

major 'programmes of the plan were the development of agricultural and

horticultural crops and training the tribals in agriculture and animal husbandry,

rehabilitation of shifting cultivators, expansion of minor irrigation facilities and

extending education and health services25

.

The main thrust of the programmes of the Sixth plan (1980-85) was

aimed at lifting at least 50 per cent of the tribal population living below the

poverty line. Agriculture, irrigation and social services continued to be major

areas of development on which Rs. 9,839.33 lacks were spent on various

programmes under Sixth plan. The seventh plan (1985-90) unprecedent

stepped up fund allocation for tribal development to Rs 27,190.68 lacks. The plan

envisages further strengthening of ITDAs by bringing various schemes into their

fold.

38

Establishment of a corporation for the development of coffee plantation

was also envisaged in this plan. The plan's major emphasis is on social and

community services and increased the proposed outlay by nearly four times to that

of expenditure in the preceding. This accounts for 60 per cent of the total plan

expenditure. Huge funds are earmarked for imparting education and vocational

training to the tribals. In continuation of its support for irrigation and power, the

plan allocated one-fourth of its funds for the development of this sector.

In Eighth plan the State Government while revising the Strategies of tribal

development, emphasized the problems of the tribals to be tackled by suitably

strengthening the mechanism of planning and implementation of programmes of

Tribal sub-plan. In the Ninth plan, the emphasis was laid on a total integrated

effort for all-round tribal development and massive efforts were made for the

soda-economic development of tribal people by the government through

organized economic planning.

It can be visualized that in the approaches to tribal development, the

emphasis was laid on increasing the living standards of tribals through strategy of

growth of core sectors and area development through investment in infrastructure.

In the Tenth plan a government policy for empowering the tribals of

Andhra Pradesh will be formulated along with a National plan of action to

operation arise the same. The main objective was to solve the unresolved issues

and persisting problem of tribals and bring them on par with the rest of the

society.

In the eleventh five year plan (2007-2012), remarkable transition to a high growth

path during the 10th

five year plan period reinforced the underlying strength of the

fundamentals of the economy and eventually resulted in evolving strategies for

39

11th

five year plan.The Government of India hadadopted rapid and inclusive

growth as its core theme in the plan. The main emphasis is on the social sector and

delivery of services therein. Education, in particular, has been allowed utmost

priority during the 11th

period. The state has set a growth target of 9.5% for the

plan as against 9% for the nation. The performance of the state growth rate

12.02% and a highly impressive growth rate of 8.89% during the 4th

year 2010-

2011 of the 11th

period.

To ensure social justice recommendation of the planning commission to

allocations for SCs and STs in proportion to their shares in the state population, on

the average, the respectable shares in the total outlays have been maintained under

SCSP and TSP in the Annual plans. An amount of Rs. 3530.21 crores have been

spent toward general education in the state during the 4 year period of the11th

plan. Andhra Pradesh has been pioneer in implementing housing for all duly

making it a reality in saturation basis. 1st 4 years of the 11

th plan, (2007-2008 to

2010-2011), 32.51 lacks houses have been constructed. In order to accomplish

saturation on the housing front, sizable budgets allocation was made during the

recent past.

Social harmony from the year sanction scholar ship to SC, ST, and BC

students were made online to ensure transparency by keeping all the information

in the public domain. An amount of Rs7076.33 crores has been spent towards

welfare of SCs, STs, BCs and Minorities during the 4th year of the 11th

plan.

1.9 Tribal welfare

The tribal population of Andhra Pradesh according to 2001 census

constitutes about 6.59% of the total population of the state. The scheduled area of

the total with 5,938 villages distributed in srikakulam, Vizianagaram,

40

Visakhapatnam, east Godavari, west Godavari, Khammam,Warangal, Adilabad,

and Mahabubnagar Districts. There are no scheduled areas in other districts. There

are 35 ST communities living in the state. At Present Andhra Pradesh population

is 63 lacks over ten years ago the population was50.24 lakhs. So the increase

growth rate is 12.85 lakhs in Andhra Pradesh. The tribal population of 63 lacks

compared to previous year census was increased to 25.6 percent. Now at present

17.14 percent increase in 2011 is noticed.

1.10 Problems Faced by the Tribes

1.10.1 Tribal Revolts in India

The various exploitative tactics of the plain men including government

officials resulted in sporadic revolts in different parts of India, before and after it

attained Independence (in 1947). A bird's eye view of the important tribal revolts

that occurred in India is, the illegal deprivation of the tribals rights on land, the

various acts of oppressions by the sudesand Dikus26

the infiltration of money

lenders, traders into tribal areas and their exploitation tactics led to the uprising by

Malpaharia tribes of Chota Nagpur (presently Chhattisgarh) in 1772, followed by

a series of such instance in 1795, 1800, 1801, 188027

.

The Santa tribes of the Santapaganism of Bihar revolts in 1885.

The major causes for the revolts were economic exploitation of British land laws,

big land lords, unfair and deceitful dealings of traders, alienation of tribal and to

money lenders, etc28

. The origin of the Munda tribes‘ movement of Bihar state

could be traced to 1856. The basic reasons for their insurrection were control of

their lands by Non-tribals, disruption of their customs, incidence of rent, denial of

justice at law courts, etc. The basic reasons for the uprising of Hill tribes of the

Ajanta Hills (M.S) is 1887 were purely economic.

41

The Gujarati and Vihra traders entered the tribal areas and opened a

network of sales and purchase depots through which tribal produce was sold at a

large margin of profit. The traders lent money to tribals at high rate of interest

ranging from 30 to 50 per cent, compoundable29

. They also adopted a complicated

system of advance payment on harvest and labour.

The tribal revolts in Baster (presently in Chhattisgarh) broke out in

1856 and 1910. The discontent of tribal was caused by encroachment of their

lands by alien immigrants. The lessees who were appointed by the native rules got

the best land into their hands and planted into those lands by Hindu and Muslim

setters. Consequently, the native tribes of baster had turned into bonded servants30

.

The tribal group movement in Naxalbari 1967 is a land mark in the history

of tribe‘s uprisings in India. (Naxalbari an area comprising about sixty villages in

the Darjeeling district of West Bengal state). The movement was very active for

periods of about five years. It started as atrickle and the country suddenly, because

conscious of its presence31

. This movement was led by CharuMazundar and

KamuSanyal, leaders of the faction of C.P.I. (M). This group made serious

attempts to organize the tribals on a whole range of major issues such as

(i) illegitimate occupation of tribal lands by non-tribals which the former

had cleared and titled for so many years

(ii) improve maintenance of tribals land records by officials and

(iii) The intricate and ambiguous land legislations. In subsequent years this

movement spread to many other parts of the country, partially to the

state of kerala and Andhra Pradesh. But its political leadership split

into a number of fractions. However, some groups of Naxalites found

to be predominant in some areas fighting for the cause of tribals(three

42

Naxalite organizations, the people‘s war group was led by Kondapalli

Sitaramaiah Chandra Pulla Reddy group and PullaVasudevaRao group,

dominate the movement in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,

Maharastra and Orrisa state). In Bihar, there are three groups with wild

influence- VinodVishra liberation group, santoshrana party unity group

and the Marxist communist centre, while the above are the most

dominant and active group in the Naxalite movement, there are

innumerable splinter factions and organizations all over the country.

1.10.2. Andhra Pradesh revolts

The first rebellion broke out in 1879 in Rampa village of East Godavari

District in which the Hill Reddies were indirectly involved. The main causes were

rack renting and heavy unusual taxes by the Zimindars frustrated the tribals. The

situation became worsned when the Zamindars increased the from Rs. 1,000 to

2,000 per annum32,

and all these factors ultimately led to a rebellion against the

authorities .The second tribal insurrection in 1992 was directed against the

exploitation of India and incidentally against the armed forces of the British

Government.

The prime cause of the uprising was extraction of free forced labour

from tribal people of Andhra agency areas for construction of a highway

penetrating thick jungles an across low hills from Srikakulam to Vizianagaram .

The revolt occurred in parvathipuram area of Vizianagaram district during 1922-

24, which was led by AlluriSitaramaraju, a non- tribals held in high esteem by the

tribal people of the Andhra Pradesh.

The third revolt took place in 1968-69 as a part of Naxalite movement in

43

Srikakulam district, which was led by vempatapuSatyanarayana, a non- tribal

teacher. The basic issues that prompted to launch a revolt were land alienation,

credit on high rate of interest, rack renting, inordinate delays in settlement of

causes in Civil and Criminal courts and vexatious process involved to get relief

from the attachment of debtor‘s properties etc33

. Unfortunately, the disastrous

urban terror campaign and ideological bickering among Naxalite intellectuals

proved to be a red herring34

. However, the Naxalite movement in the state has

brought significant changes in the tribals‘ living standards.

The state government of Andhra Pradesh intensified certain economic

upliftment programmes in the tribal areas of Srikakulam district. Similarly, the

Girijan Co-operative Corporation also evinced keen interest in improving

marketing network in order to root out the private traders. In April, 1981, the

Gonds of Adilabad planned a raid on the houses of Cotton traders- cum- money

lenders of Indravalli village in Utnoortaluk of Adilabad district. The police

suppressed the movement and more than 60 tribals were killed in the encounter.

Thebasic reasons that led to the uprising were purely economic. The Marwari

traders of Indravalli village were the buyers of cotton in the neighbourhood. They

used to buy cotton from the tribals at very low prices. In addition, they lend

money at very high rates of interest. By adopting a complicated system of advance

payments on harvest, the Marwari traders acquired a stronghold on the economic

resources of the Gond tribals. The intolerable exploitation of tirbals had ultimately

erupted in to a revolt against the oppressors. Although the movement was

suppressed, it brought a remarkable change in the marketing of cotton in Adilabad

district. The cotton corporation of India came forward to procure the processed

cotton through the Agency of Girijan Corporation. However the cotton

44

procurement in Adilabad lasted only for three years.

The problems of tribals are manifold, that call for immediate attention are:

(i) tribal economy that is not only organized but also non-monetized, (ii) their

dependency on money lenders to meet their requirements during lean periods

which further entangle them in the web of poverty and misery, (iii) indifference to

education leading to low enrolment and dropouts in tribal schools, (iv)

displacement due to project like irrigation, power, mining and industry.

1.10.3. Government Policy

So far the Indian constitution after independence and with the setting up of

a constituent assembly, it was decided to incorporate special provisions for

protection and development of tribals. Article 46 of the Indian constitution

provides, that he state shall promote with special care the educational and

economic interests of the weaker section of the people, and in particular of the

scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes, and shall protect them from social

injustice.

The primary objective of the government policy in regard to tribal people

and tribal areas has been directed to preservation of tribal culture and social

customs from erosion, safe guarding traditional occupations, and protection from

exploitation by the more sophisticated groups, and their economic and social

development.

1.10.4. Exploitation of Tribals

Exploitation of tribals was largely prevalent during and after the British

administration in India. The British policy of isolating the tribals from the rest of

the country-men and keeping the tribal areas outside the purview of the normal

administration amply lead to the exploitation of the tribals, byZamindars,

45

contractors, forest-guards and other middlemen. Deliberate neglect of the British

administration to develop communications in tribal areas has resulted in

permanently cutting off these areas from the rest. Under the guise of various

programmes of afforestation and conservation, the forest guards inhumanly

exploited the tribals.

They restricted the tribals of their traditional rights to the use of fuel,

timber and collection of minor forest produce. They adopted various tactics such

as extraction of free labour and collection of illegitimate fee from the tribals for

allowing them to exercise the deprived rights36

. Traditional and hereditary tribal

heads known as the muttadars exploited the tribals by the tribal workers.

Indebtedness is the bone of the tribal economy. The peculiar set of

economic and social customs of the aboriginal has made indebtedness a chronic

and endemic malady37

. Abject poverty has forced the tribals to depend heavily on

money lenders for credit for their sustenance especially during the off seasons.

Apart from this, the tribals‘ abiding faith in, social religious traditional practices

has forced them to take loans from money lenders and other sources to perform

various functions. Thus, credit has become indispensable for tribals to meet social

and religious needs. Non-tribal moneylenders took undue advantage of the

precarious economic conditions of the tribals and exploited them by lending petty

loans at unusual rates of interest.

The rate of interest charged by the moneylenders usually varies from 25

per cent to 50 per cent and was some times as high as 100 cent38

. According to the

study made by the Administrative Staff College of India, the rate of interest on the

borrowings of the tribals form professional moneylenders in Madhya Pradesh

varied from 15 per cent to 100 per cent39

. Thus, the size and extent of the

46

problems of indebtedness is so enormous that it totally upsets the happiness and

peace of the tribals. The more money the tribals borrowed, the more they got

involved in indebtedness from which they have no means to absolve themselves.

Often, the debt was perpetuated and descended from father to son and even to the

third generation40

. Having been unable to clear off the debts, most of the tribals

alienated their agricultural lands to the moneylenders and became agricultural

labours or tenants on their own lands41

. The moneylenders cleverly entangle the

poor tribals in monetary deals and finally grabbed their lands.

The landless tribals who were indebted to the money lenders become

bonded labour,(the feature of this practice is that the pledged a person and

sometimes a member of his family against a loan. The man who is pledge or his

nominee is released only when the loan is cleared. Until then, the pledge or his

family member is required to work for his creditor against a meal, without asking

for any wages. Since the pledge is not paid wages, he has to wait for one alone.

This relationship lasts for months, years, sometimes for the entire life time and in

some exceptional cases it extends to the heirs).

The study on the extent of land alienation revealed that non-tribals in the

tribal areas resorted to certain binami transactions like purchasing land in the

name of a tribal boom servant, tribal friends or in the name of tribial concubines42,

since purchase of land by non-tribals is prohibited. As a result of thisland whose

holdings ranged between 5 to 90 acres. It was also found that only five non-tribal

cultivators were controlling the entire cultivatable land of 119 acres out of the

available land of 150 acres in a tribal village called Koruturu, in Khammam

District of Andhra Pradesh. None of these five cultivators originally owned land

in the village. It was also brought to light that 5,431 non-tribal plainsmen had

47

occupied the tirbals agricultural lands of 38,805 acres in 630 villages in East

Godavari District43

. The traders play a key role in marketing activity in the tribal

areas. They carry out the function of purchasing forest produce from the tribals

and selling to them domestic requirements. The tribals‘ ignorance of weights and

measures and the value of the produce they purchase and sell had been unduly

taken advantage of by the traders. Cheating of tribals by traders was not only in

the form of payment of low price for the produce offered by tribals income on the

sales of agricultural produce and forest produce was extremely low.

The poverty and the credulity of the tribals was exploited by the traders to

the maximum by, offering to the former petty loans on credit sales and by getting

in return agricultural of forest produce, whose value was many times more than

that of the amount actually due.

In this setting, the more advanced and resourceful person form the

plain area migrates to the tribals land and took undue advantages of the ignorance

of the tribal people and thoroughly exploited them. The greedy money lenders, the

muttadars, the forest contractors and the traders successfully circumvent much

protective legislation, shielding tribals and appropriated big fortunes. The victims

suffered till their patience was exhausted and at the end, in a helpless stage, they

revolt against the authoritarian.

1.10.5. Marketing in Tribal Economy

The tribal people know well that the central and state government is deeply

committed to the upliftment of the tribals. The setting up of multi-purpose tribal

blocks and integrated tribal development projects are some of the big ideas in this

direction. They have brought considerable changes in the living-standards of the

tribals.

48

These agencies involved several schemes in the tribal areas to provide for

educational and infrastructural facilities and development of agriculture, and

various schemes drawn for the development of minor irrigation. Supplying of

power and provision of credit for land reclamation, plough-bullocks, seeds,

manure and pump sets are all intended to increase agriculture, inputs. These

schemes alone may not improve the economic lot of the tribals. The increased

utilization of inputs in agriculture would increase the output from the lands which

in turn enhance the purchasing power of the tribals.

Mere combination of increased production and purchasing power alone

could not bring in the desired levels of the standards of living, with the creation of

adequate marketing facilities. Therefore, production, purchasing power and

marketing are the triumvirate of economic determinants of the standards of living;

well organized marketing system in any economy. The increase in purchasing

power resulting from production leads to higher levels of standards of livings of

people when it is adequately supported by marketing. Though these triumvirate

forces of standards of living are interdependent, marketing plays a key role in the

development process of a group of an areas or a nation.

The increase in production and purchasing power of tribals should

effectively be linked up with marketing network. It is right to say that to have

one‘s growth rate retarded not by lack of resources but by lack of demand is a

strange phenomenon in a developing economy and one which we can ill-afford to

repeat‖45

. Thus, marketing has a significant role to play in improving the standards

of living of even the most primitive people living in the remote tribal tracts of

India.

If all the farmers have access to production inputs, the financial system,

49

the market and agricultural knowledge, then they can improve the state of

agriculture. But most farmers lack access to a market system and thus lack both

the resources and the incentives to modernize their production methods46

. As

such, marketing provides an incentive to the production and the combination of

these enhances the purchasing power of the people. As is already mentioned the

glaring features of the tribal economy are the primitive type of agriculture, high

rate of illiteracy, in accessibility by road and scant irrigation facilities

The tribals live in forests collecting minor forest produce like tamarind,

gum, adda leaf, mohwa seed and flower, myrobalans, nux-vomica, soap nuts, etc.,

which have good commercial value. Having realized that agriculture is a potential

source of income, most of the tribals are found to be growing several food crops in

the agricultural lands in the forest areas.

Most of the produce is used for domestic consumption. However, a

marginal quantity of agricultural produce comes itself into the market, not because

there is marketable surplus, but because of dire necessity in lieu of loans taken.

These features of tribal economy are not conducive for fuller

development of organized market centres in the tribal tracts of the state. But at the

same time they should not be deprived of better marketing facilities. Most of the

marketing activity, in tribal areas, is being carried out at periodic markets located

at important centres. The reasons for concentration of marketing activity at some

places are the absence of link roads and smallness in the size of population of a

large number of tribal villages.

In the absence of marketing facilities, the tribals have to walk over several

miles to sell the forest and agricultural products and purchases of their basic needs

of rice, salt, kerosene, edible oil, cloth, etc., Hence, development of adequate

50

marketing facilities in tribal areas is of fundamental urgency to save the tribals

who are mercilessly entangled in the cruel network of exploitation47

, from the

traders in the previous years, or to meet the immediate, hard pressing domestic

needs48

. It is needless to say that in the absence of well-organized marketing

system, traders exploit the tribals by offering them rock bottom prices for the

produce. This has been recognized as early as in 1956 by the Government of

Andhra Pradesh and evolved a scheme of setting up of a separate credit-cum-

marketing agency for the tribals in the state based on the recommendations of the

committee on the socio-economic conditions of the aboriginal tribes of the

province of Madras, headed by Malayappam. It is intended for procurement of

forest and agricultural product from the tribals and supply of domestic

requirements to tribals and provision of credit facilities for tribals, agricultural

operations.Then came into existence, perhaps the first of its kind, an organization

called the GCC Ltd in 1956.

1.11 Need for the study

The Girijan Corporation in the state of Andhra Pradesh significantly

contribute for the upliftment of the tribals through implementing various

programmes particularly in purchase and selling of minor forest products,

distribution of loans and purchase and sale of daily requirements over the period.

Further, the organization has several deficiencies, problems in various compasses

and act as bottleneck to achieve optimum level development in the tribal welfare.

Moreover, the challenges faced by this organization are also difficult in

nature. Beside the managerial system adopted in the Girijan Corporation in the

operational aspects as well as in performance is also determined factor to achieve

targets fixed by the organization keeping the above aspects under consideration.

51

The study is critically examined the performance of the organization based on the

achievement of the organization over the period.

1.12 Complication to face the problems

Keeping the above aspects under consideration, an attempt is made in this

study not only to evaluate of the Girijan Corporations role played in the tribal

areas over the period but also to determine the functional status of the Girijan

Corporation. Further, the study determined tribal attitudes on the performance of

the Girijan Corporation. Besides, the study formulates feasible and good-natured

managerial systems for the effective functioning of Girijan Corporation.

1.13 Objectives

The specific objectives of the study areas in the follow;

1. To study about the Girijan Corporation in the study area.

2. To the study socio-economic activities of Girijan Corporation in the study area

3. To analyse functional activities of the Girijan Corporation in the study area

4. To study the requirement of the tribal in the rural markets.

5. To identity the problems anddeficiencies faced by tribals particularly to the

Girijan Corporation activities in the study area

6. To study the managerial system for the effective functionaries of Girijan

Corporation in the study area.

This is to express managerial system of the effective functioning of Girijan

Corporation in the study area.

52

1.14 selection of the study area

Year Total population

ST population Percent of ST

Population Male Female Total

2011 2245103 106079 108760 214839 9.55

ST Population and Demographic Analysis

• Major Tribal Groups:

• Jathapu (43.65%),

• Kondadora (24.24%),

• Yerukula (3.43%),

• Nookadora (2.41%),

• Gadaba (9.44%),

• Savara (11.63%)

• Cultivators 13.40%

• Agricultural Labour 12.90%

• Others: 12.70%

• Literacy rate:

• Male: 62.37%

• Female: 39.91% (Total: 51.07%)

The district of Srikakulam is located in Andhra Pradesh, a southern state of

India. Srikakulam used to be a part of Kalinga kingdom in ancient India. A

considerable part of this district is occupied by forests. In the east there is the Bay

of Bengal. Vamshadhara, Tanaya, Nagavali and Mahendra are the four main rivers

of this place. Srikakulam is chiefly inhabited by tribal people. The main economic

resources are timber, bamboo, manganese, mica, graphite are obtained from this

place Jute constitutes the most important form of industry. Srikakulum is the land

of temples. The Arasavalli sun temple, the SrikurmanVishnu temple are famous

53

for their architecture and the Srimukhalingam temple deserves special mention

other places of tourist interest are Baruva and Kaviti which may be visited for

their scenic beauty.

1. Srikakulam District

An official Census 2011 detail of Srikakulam, a district of Andhra Pradesh

has been released by Directorate of Census Operations in Andhra Pradesh.

Enumeration of key persons was also done by census officials in Srikakulam

District of Andhra Pradesh. In 2011, Srikakulam had population of 2,699,471 of

which male and female were 1,340,430 and 1,359,041 respectively. There was

change of 6.38 percent in the population compared to population as per 2001. In

the previous census of India 2001, Srikakulam District recorded increase of 9.33

percent to its population compared to 1991. The initial provisional data suggest a

density of 462 in 2011 compared to 435 of 2001.The total area under Srikakulam

district is of about 5,837 sq.km. Average literacy rate of Srikakulam in 2011 was

62.30 compared to 55.31 of 2001.

Uncertainty things are looked out at gender wise, male and female literacy

were 72.25 and 52.56 respectively. For 2001 census, same figures stood at 67.19

and 43.68 in Srikakulam District. Total literature in Srikakulam District was

1,516,425 of which male and female were 870,196 and 646,229 respectively. In

2001, Srikakulam District had 1,217,659 in its total region. With regards to Sex

Ratio in Srikakulam, it stood at 1014 per 1000 male compared to 2001 census

figure of 1014. The average national sex ratio in India is 940 as per latest reports

of Census 2011 Directorate.

54

Description 2011 2001

Male 1,340,430 1,260,020

Female 1,359,041 1,277,573

Population Growth 6.38% 9.33%

Area Sq. Km 5,837 5,837

Density/km2 462 435

Proportion to Andhra Pradesh Population 3.19% 3.33%

Sex Ratio (Per 1000) 1014 1014

Child Sex Ratio (0-6 Age) 953 967

Average Literacy 62.30 55.31

Male Literacy 72.25 67.19

Female Literacy 52.56 43.68

Total Child Population (0-6 Ag 265,404 336,093

Male Population (0-6 Age) 135,929 170,831

Female Population (0-6 Age) 129,475 165,262

Literates 1,516,425 1,217,659

Male Literates 870,196 731,778

Female Literates 646,229 485,881

Child Proportion (0-6 Age) 9.83% 13.24%

Boys Proportion (0-6 Age) 10.14% 13.56%

Girls Proportion (0-6 Age) 9.53% 12.94%

In census enumeration, data regarding child under 0-6 age were also

collected for all districts including Srikakulam. There were total 265,404 children

under age of 0-6 against 336,093 of 2001 census. Of the totalpopulation 265,404

male and female were 135,929 and 129,475 respectively. Child Sex Ratio as per

55

census 2011 was 953 compared to 967 of census 2001. In 2011, Children under 0-

6 formed 9.83 percent of Srikakulam District compared to 13.24 percent of 2001.

There was net change of -3.41 percent in this compared to previous census of

India.

Srikakulam District population constituted 3.19 percent of total Andhra

Pradesh population. In 2001 census, this figure for Srikakulam District was at 3.19

percent of Andhra Pradesh population. All details regarding Srikakulam District

have been processed by us after receiving from Govt. of India.

2. Vizianagaram District

An official Census 2011 detail of Vizianagaram, a district of Andhra

Pradesh has been released by Directorate of Census Operations in Andhra

Pradesh. Enumeration of key persons was also done by census officials in

Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh. In 2011, Vizianagaram had population

of 2,342,868 of which male and female were 1,161,913 and 1,180,955

respectively. There was change of 4.16 percent in the population compared to

population as per 2001. In the previous census of India 2001, Vizianagaram

District recorded increase of 6.55 percent to its population compared to 1991.

The initial provisional data suggest a density of 358 in 2011 compared to

344 of 2001. The total area under Vizianagaram district is ofabout 6,539 sq.km.

Average literacy rate of Vizianagaram in 2011 were 59.49 compared to 51.07 of

2001. If things are looked out at gender wise, male and female literacy were 69.04

and 50.16 respectively. For 2001 census, same figures stood at 62.37 and 39.91 in

Vizianagaram District. Total literates in Vizianagaram District were 1,256,342 of

which male and female were 720,623 and 535,719 respectively. In 2001,

56

Vizianagaram District had 997,482 in its total region. With regard to Sex Ratio in

Vizianagaram, it stood at 1016 per 1000 male compared to 2001 census figure of

1009. The average national sex ratio in India is 940 as per latest reports of Census

2011 Directorate.

Description 2011 2001

Actual Population 2,342,868 2,249,254

Male 1,161,913 1,119,541

Female 1,180,955 1,129,713

Population Growth 4.16% 6.55%

Area Sq. Km 6,539 6,539

Density/km2 358 344

Proportion to Andhra Pradesh Population 2.77% 2.95%

Sex Ratio (Per 1000) 1016 1009

Child Sex Ratio (0-6 Age 955 980

Average Literacy 59.49 51.07

Male Literacy 69.04 62.37

Female Literacy 50.16 39.91

Total Child Population (0-6 Age) 231,021 295,929

Male Population (0-6 Age) 118,149 149,478

Female Population (0-6 Age) 112,872 146,451

Literates 1,256,342 997,482

Male Literates 720,623 605,038

Female Literates 535,719 392,444

57

In census enumeration, data regarding child under 0-6 age were also

collected for all districts including Vizianagaram. There were 231,021 children

under age of 0-6 against 295,929 of 2001 census. Of the total 231,021, male and

female were 118,149 and 112,872 respectively. Child Sex Ratio as per census

2011 was 955 compared to 980 of census 2001. In 2011, Children under 0-6

formed 9.86 percent of Vizianagaram District compared to 13.16 percent of 2001.

There wasa net change of -3.3 percent in this compared to previous census of

India. Vizianagaram District population constituted 2.77 percent of total Andhra

Pradesh population. In 2001 census, this figure for Vizianagaram District was at

2.77 percent of Andhra Pradesh population. All details regarding Vizianagaram

District have been processed by us after receiving from Govt. of India. The

official census 2011 of Andhra Pradesh has been conducted by Directorate of

Census Operations in Andhra Pradesh. Enumeration of key persons including

Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh was also done by officials conducting

population census. As per details from Census 2011, Andhra Pradesh has

population of 8.46 Crore, an increase from figure of 7.62 Crore in 2001 census.

Total population of Andhra Pradesh as per 2011 census is 84,665,533 of which

male and female are 42,509,881 and 42,155,652 respectively. In 2001, total

population was 76,210,007 in which males were 38,527,413 while females were

37,682,594. The total population growth in this decade was 11.10 percent while in

previous decade it was 13.86 percent. Thepopulations of Andhra Pradesh form

7.00 percent of India in 2011. In 2001, was declared population 7.41 percent.

58

Seethampeta Division shandies day

Shandy day GPCMS, Seethampet Pathapatnam

Monday Seethampeta Goppili

Tuesday - Gouduguranti

Wednesday Marripadu Singupuram

Thursday Donubai,bhamini Sabarikota

Friday - China coasta

Saturday Polla,kusumi Pittura

Sunday - Bondikaru

Parvathipuram Division shandies day

Shandy day Gpcms,parvathipuram G.l.puram Saluru

Monday - Duddukallu,kedari

puram

Pachipenta

Tuesday - - -

Wednesday Pedasekha,ramabadrapuram G.l.puram Pudi

Thursday - Thadikonda, Duggeru

Friday Yendabadra,beerupadu Danalakshipuram Thadilova

Saturday Kuneru,rebba Gorada Thonam,kurukutti

Sunday Kemisilli,gumma Valasaballeru -

59

Map of the Andhra Pradesh

60

61

62

63

64

1.15 Methodology

The study covered both primary and secondary data from the role of the

Girijan Corporation. The study has collected information pertaining to concepts,

objectives and functions of the Girijan Corporation in srikakulam and

Vizianagaram divisions as well as the services provided by the Girijan

Corporation over the period in the study area.

Secondary data refer to information that has been collected by someone for

research purpose other than like sale of consumer goods, articles of daily needs,

primary rural markets may be deemed as growth centres in emerging situation of

rural development. Based on this information, the study determined the coverage

of the services of the Girijan Corporation over the period

The study carried out an attitudinal survey among tribals in different tribal

mandals. Further, the study covered 500 respondents out of which some are

beneficiary respondents in five Mandalasof 100 In Each Mandal, 10 Villages Was

Covered Namely;Seethampeta, Pathapatnam, Saluru, Gummalakshimipurum,

Parvathipuram, In Each Village Namely Parvathipuram,Komarada,

Jiyyyamvalasa, Adduruvalasa, Puligumiudi, Dokiseela, Muneru, Beerupadu,

Pedasakha, Kenisilli, Gumada, Yendabadra, Ramabadrapuram, Kurupam,

ValasaBalleru, Duddukallu, Kedaripuram,GummalakshmiPuram, Thadikonda,

Gorada, Kondukuppa, Dummangi, Gumma, Soppagottili, Jumbbli, Gotiwada,

Taisala, Bobbidi, Pachipenta, Pudi, Duggeru, Thodilova, Thonam, Kurukutti,

Kothavalasa, Manchadavalasa, Desali, KondaKenguva, Chepuruvalasa, Saluru,

Vetaganipalem, Mentada, Seethampet, Marripadu, Donubai, Bhamini, Polla,

Kusumi, Kodisa, Gottipalli, Battils, Addakulla, Guda, Makkava, Manapuram,

65

Pedarama, Putikavalasa, Valasagedda, Pathapatnam, Bondikarru, Goppili,

Singupuram, Sabarikota, Chinacosta, Pittura, Bandapalli, Lotturu, Jeedipenta,

Naraharipuram, Dasupuram, Neelabontu, Savaralingapuram.The information

collected from the respondents related to the socio-economic and personal

characteristics, services provided by Girijan Corporation, problems faced by the

respondents particularly in marketing aspects and suggestions. Based on this

information, the study analyses the performance of the Girijan Corporation and

also identified problems faced by tribals particularly in marketing aspects.

Moreover, the study applied several quantitative statistical methods such SPSS

package, standard deviation, mean andt-test to draw direct and indirect

relationship exist in various socio-economic and living conditions among tribals.

After integration of the entire data, the study conveys feasible and good-

natured managerial system for the effective functioning of the Girijan

Corporation. The rural markets can be effective instruments only when they are

development in a systematic manner taking into consideration factories of local

importance.

Sample of the primary corporation society in tribal villages

Parvathipuram G.L.puram saluru seethampeta pathapatnam

5 mandals 5 mandals 5 mandals 5 mandals 5 mandals

Each division

10villages

Each division

10villages

Each division

10villages

Each division

10villages

Each division

10villages

Note: the above table indicates the number of sample tribal households in the respective

of study area.

66

1.16. Organization of the study

The following constraints have taken place while interpreting the

report.Functional statements are purely objective statements of the facts. They

present information which is a combination of recorded facts.

Due to their busy schedule the executives could not spare much time, they

gave us the information by way of small discussions for the purpose of data

collected.

The study is presented eightchapters. The details of the chapters are as follows;

Chapter-I introduction: the study dealing with the need for the tribal development,

tribals in India. Organisational frame work for tribal development in Andhra

Pradesh, problems faced by the tribals, tribals‘ revolt in Indian and Andhra

Pradesh, exploitation to the tribals, marketing role in tribal area and methodology.

Chapter-II Review of literatures: the chapter presents the review of earlier studies

carried out by various faculties such as sociology, anthropology, economics,

commerce and management studied and law. The study reviewed the studies

pertaining to social, economic and living conditions of different tribes, tribal

institutions, and development programme, tribal organisations. Further, the study

presented the reviewing chronological order from 1940 to 2012.

Chapter III Tribals in India: the Constitution of India incorporates several special

provisions for the promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled

Tribes and their protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

These objectives are sought to be achieved through a strategy known as the Tribal

Sub-Plan strategy, which was adopted at the beginning of the Fifth Five Year

Plan. The strategy seeks to ensure adequate flow of funds for tribal development

67

form the State Plan allocations, schemes of Central Ministry Departments,

financial and Developmental Institutions.

Chapter-IV Socio-economic profile of the tribals:Among the communities

traditional values and social ethos play an important role and significance of

socio-cultural factors cannot be ignored in formulation of schemes for their all-

round sustainable development. The field observation reveal that, because of the

relative isolation in the remote and hilly area villages and also due to the

continuity of traditional political system which punishes those who do not comply

with the traditional ritual behaviour there is no perceptible change in the socio-

cultural and religious traits of the selected households who are living in region,

mandalas and villages. Also majority of the households in remote and hilly areas

are still poor, illiterate and ignorant and are still in favour of traditionalism.

Chapter-VIn this chapter discussed to indicate the Girijan corporation played a

vital role in the tribal economy, since its commencement. The main objective of

the study is not only to determine the role played by Girijan Corporation for an

overall development of the tribal economy but also to evaluate the functioning of

Girijan Corporation in varied socio-economic conditions that exist in tribal areas.

Chapter VI Rural markets in India and Andhra Pradesh:The villages are the

backbone or the soul of India. With more than two thirds of the Indian population

living in rural areas, rural India reflects the very essence of Indian culture and

tradition.As part of planned economic development, the government is making

continuous efforts towards rural development. In this age of liberalization,

privatization and globalization, rural market offers a big attraction to the

marketers to explore markets that are untapped.

68

Chapter VII particularly in Rural markets requirement in the study area:

The rural market may be attracting marketers but it is not without its problems,

Low per capita disposable incomes that are half the urban disposable income;

large number of daily wage earners, acute dependence on the vagaries of the

monsoon; seasonal consumption linked to harvests and festivals and special

occasion‘s roads, power problems, and inaccessibility to conventional advertising

media.Agricultural commodities move in the marketing chain through different

channels. The marketing channels are distinguished from each other on the basis

of market functionaries involved in carrying the produce from the farmers to the

ultimate consumers

Chapter VIII difficulties faced by the tribal and requirements of the tribals:this

chapter to analyze the trends of procurement of minor forest produce and sales of

minor forest produce of GCC and purchase and sales of daily requirement over the

period. The data pertaining to above mentioned aspects has been collected from

the GCC of the Vizianagaram district and the another center is dividing in to three

sections, section-i dealing with the procurement and sales of the minor forest

produces while section-iipresents the sales and purchase of daily requirements and

section-iii presents loan aspects of the Girijan Corporation.

Finding and suggestions, Last part presentsobservation of entire organisation of

the study areas summary and conclusion.

Conclusion

The economic position of scheduled tribes is determined from their income

and the scale of employment. The programmes have generated opportunities for

the scheduled tribes. The scheduled tribes are coming to the forefront and are

trying to be assimilated in the main process of development. They have been

69

gainfully employed and their income has been increased. Their political

participation is being taken care of through the introduction of Panchayath Raj

system. Theyis gradually participating in the political process of the country. In

general, their dignity and self-image are not properly articulated. Review of this

leads us to think that the development process is not being property framed to take

care of the social status of the Scheduled tribes in India.

70

REFERENCES

1. Majumdar, D.N., Tribal rehabilitation in India, jean Maynard social change

and economic development , UNESCO, international social science

bullition,1963,p,124.

2. Artya, P.C, and Mehta, N. constitutional safeguard for the tribal souvenir,

Bharatiyaadimajatisevaksangh, New Delhi,1964,p.173.

3. varrier Elwin, a new deal for tribal India , manager of publications, ministry of

home affairs, New Delhi,1963,p.18.

4. Annual Credit Plans 20010-11 of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and

Visakhapatnam Districts.

5. Government of India, second five years plans, planning commission, New

Delhi1956, p.590.

6. Government of India, third five years plans, planning commission, New

Delhi1961, p.701.

7. Government of India, fourth five years plans, planning commission, New

Delhi1969, p.375.

8. Government of India revised planning commission, New Delhi1979, p.204.

9. Government of India, six five years plan 1980-85, midterm appraisal,

planning commission, New Delhi1983, p.112.

10. Government of India, six five years plan 1980-85, planning commission, New

Delhi1980, p.456.

11. Government of India, seventh five years plan, 1985-90, vol. II, planning

commission, New Delhi1985, p.331.

12. Background Paper for Branch Credit Plans, 2009-10, of the Lead Banks of the

three selected districts.

71

13. District Hand books, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam, Chief

Planning Officer, Different years.

14. Report on the selected five mandals 2010-11, Office of the Mandal Revenue

Officers.

15. Kamala Devi chattopodyay, tribalism in India, vikas publishing house pvt,

Ltd. New Delhi, 1978, p.1.

16. ChristophVohfurerHaimendorf, tribes if India, the struggle for survival,

Oxford University presses Delhi, 1982, p.3.

17. Ranjith Gupta, planning for tribal development, Ankur publishing house, New

Delhi, 1977,p 87.

18. Government of India report of the study team on social services in tribal areas

during the medium-term plan 1978-83, ministry of home Affairs, New Delhi,

1978, p3.

19. pareek, R.N, Tribal culture in flux, B.R. publishing corporation, New

Delhi,1977,p.25.

20. vidyavanthi, L.P. and Raj, B.K, the tribal culture of India , concept pub;ishing

co, Delhi,1977,p.25.

21. Frances Sinha and sanjaysinha,wollen production and KVIC in Hill areas

development, economic and political weekly, vol. xix, No.35, September, 1,

1984, pp.1 and 545.

22. Administration staff college of India, management of tribal development

programme, study of minor forest produces, the author, Hyderabad, 1977-

78,p.51.

23. Singh.D.V. andBhat,J.P., ‗Lobour force and its utilization in Himachal

Pradesh,1984.p.147.

24. Records of Integrated Tribe Development Agency, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram

and Visakhapatnam Districts.

72

25. Government of Andhra Pradesh, six five year plan, 1980-85, finance and

planning department , director of printing , Hyderabad,1980,520.

26. Studies and dikus were the Hindus and other outsiders introduced by the

British rulers as landlords or their agents or as tax collectors and police

officers.

27. Raghavaiah, V.,Tribal Revolts, Andhra Pradesh Adimajatisevaksamgh,

Nellore,1971.

28. Edward Thomson and Garvat, G.T.,Rise and fulfilment of British rule in

India, central bank depot, Allahabad.1966.p.415.

29. Nath,Y.V.S., Bhils of Ratnamalan analysis for the social structure of western

India community, Desai,I.P., faculty of arts, Basavadev,1960.p59.

30. Raghavaiah,V.,Tribal revolts, op cit.p.197.

31. Adikari, of Naxalitemovemtn with special reference to its repercussion among

tribes, quoted in singh,K.N.., tribal movement in India,Manohar publications,

NewDelhi,1983,pp.120-121.

32. Haimondorf, the reddis of bison hills Mc million London, 1945, p.31.

33. Nair,V.M., Girjan revolts Marxist organize armed action by Andhra tribes, the

statesman, Calcutta,april,12,1968.

34. The Indian express, Sunday Magazine, june12, 1988, p.1, col.3.

35. Records of concerned Mandal Development Officers, Seetampeta, Mandal,

Parvathipuram, G.L. Puram, saluru and pathapatnammandals.

36. Mishra, R.P., Rural development natural policies and experience, witted

Nations center for regional development, regional development series,

Nogoya, Japan, Vol. 4, p.13, 1981.

37. Government of Andhra Pradesh report committee in the GCC Hyderabad

1976, p.7.

73

38. Tribal culture research and training institution, survey of tribal development

block, Bhadrachalam, khammam district, Government of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad, 1966, p.97.

39. Note on Development Activities in the Agency Areas of Srikakulam,

Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts.

40. Govt of India, report of the study team on plan programmes, planning

commission, manager of publications, New Delhi, 1960.p130.

41. Tribal cultural research and training institution, survey of tribal evelopment

block, koyyuru, Visakhapatnam district, Government of Andhra Pradesh,

1973, p.71.

42. Government of Andhra Pradesh sub-plan for the tribal development of Andhra

Pradesh, finance and planning department, director of printing Hyderabed,

1975, p.46.

43. Jaya prakasharao ,kondaReddies in transition , quoted in Christophe

vohfurorHaimendoof, tribes of India, op.cit.,pp.274-283.

44. Patnaik, N. Tribals and their development, national institute of community

development, Hyderabad, 1972, p.12.

45. Morris mashies, marketing as an infrastructure in a developing economy,

Indian journal of marketing , New Delho,may-june,1974,p.13.

46. Edgar Owens and Rober shops, development reconsidered, Lexington books,

Massachusetts, p.71.

47. Census Hand Book of Srikakulam and Vizianagaram Districts 2008-09, Govt.

A.P., Hyderabad.

48. Chief Planning Officers reports of Srikakulam, Vizianagarm and

Visakhapatnam districts.

49. Census report 2001.

50. Census report 1991.

74

51. Census report 2011.

52. GCC report in division office Visakhapatnam.

53. 53P.R.Rao sterling publication private limited, New Delhi, p.108

54. Government of Madras report 1952, p.10

55. Governmentorder No. 2382 education and endowments departments, date 11,

October, 1956.

56. Murali Krishna Rao, Marketing in tribal Economy, inters India publications

New Delhi (1968),

57. Sexena, H.M., Rural marketing and development, Rawat publication, Jaipur,

1986.

58. Upadhyaya, R., Integrated rural development in India basic approach in

policy, Himalaya publication in Bombay, 1989, p. 52 to 23.

59. George, P.T., Rural marketing development in the context of the integrated

rural development programme, National institute of rural development,

Hyderabad 1987, 59.Chakravarthy, J.P., management of rural markets in

Mangaldoi sub-division of Assam, development work shop on regulation

marketing agricultural products markets, Pune, p.6, 1982.

60. I.T.D.A reports in the tribal area at seethampeta and parvathipuram division.