Chapter - II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCHES

2.1 Resources for Review

2.1.1 Online Resources

2.1.2 Offline Resources

2.2 Review of Related Literature and Researches

2.3 Part I- Review of Related Literature

2.3.1 Section I – Review of Related Literature in Abroad

2.3.1.1 Subsection I – Literature Related with Teaching Strategy in Abroad

2.3.1.2 Subsection II – Literature Related with scientific literacy in Abroad

2.3.1.3 Subsection III - Literature Related with scientific process skills in Abroad

2.3.2 Section II- Review of Related Literature in India

2.3.2.1 Subsection - Literature related with teaching strategy in India

2.3.2.2 Subsection II - Literature Related with scientific literacy in India

2.3.2.3 Subsection III- Literature related with scientific process skills in India

2.4 Part II Review of Related Research

2.4.1 Section I-Review of Related Research in Abroad

2.4.1.1 Subsection I - Research Related with Teaching Strategy in Abroad

2.4.1.2 Subsection II - Research Related with Scientific Literacy in Abroad

2.4.1.3 Subsection III - Research Related with Scientific Process Skills in Abroad

2.4.2 Section II – Review of Related Research in India

2.4.2.1 Subsection I – Research Related with teaching strategy in India

2.4.2.2 Subsection II - Research Related with Scientific Literacy in India

2.4.2.3 Subsection III – Research Related with Scientific Process Skills in India

2.5 Summary and Discussion of Related Literature and Researches

2.5.1 Contribution of Related Literature and Related Researches to Present Study

Chapter – II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCHES

Review of previous researches and literature explore multifaceted, complex nature of phenomenon under investigation. It enables researcher to comprehend aspects, sub aspect of problems on various level and also develop skills, attitude to manipulate the problem.

This chapter is second in sequence of report writing but the process of review of related researches and literature begins with the development of problem, goes on parallel with each stage of research and after the completion too. It is aimed to understanding methodology of previous studies, gaps, errors in the field, needs and essentialities of the field, avoid duplication and plagiarism. (Best, J. W., 2009).

2.1 Resources for Review

There are various sources to access the related literature and information of previous studies. They are mainly categorized as online and offline sources.

2.1.1 Online Resources

Related articles are accessed from internet, among them some are directly related to social intelligence and remaining are related to pedagogical content knowledge covering aspects like classroom social skills, interpersonal skills, creativity, positive deviance, personality traits etc. Most of the articles are based on research studies.

2.1.2 Offline Resources

Printed form of journals, souvenir, proceedings, books, encyclopedia etc. are used for the purpose of gaining information regarding the problem of present study.

For this particular study, researcher has employed following sources of information.

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Resources for Revie w

Sources

Online Resources Journal of REducation a

Internationa

Science Edu

Internationa

Asia-Pacifichttp://www.n

http://www.acthttp://www.sc

http://www.oh

Offline Resources Balasaheb K

In all, researches at dare taken into special considevariables involved in this studthe work of Indian authors as

The chapter is structu

2.2 Review of Related L i

Review of Related Literature and Researches divided intoPart I- Review of Related Literature and Part IIResearch. Each part consists of two sections given below.

Fig. No. 2.1 : Structure of Review of Related Literature an Resear ches

Table No. 2.1

w of Related Literature and Researches

Particulars

Research in Science Teaching Journal of Science and Technology Learning and Instruction

al Journal of Science and Mathematics Education,

ducation, Science Communication,

al Journal of Educational Research

c Forum on Science Learning and Teaching ncrel.org/engauge/skills/scilit.htm

.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/hazen.html .scientificliteracy.org/

ohio4h.org/product/experience.htm

Khardekar Library, Shivaji University, Kolhapur

doctoral level and articles in research jouderation regarding the problem, objectivesudy. Among these researches and literas well as authors from abroad is included.

red with component as follows:

iterature and Researches

Review of Related Literature and Researches divided into two parts Review of Related Literature and Part II- Review of Related

Research. Each part consists of two sections given below.

Structure of Review of Related Literature an Resear ches

,

urnals s and ature,

two parts Review of Related

Structure of Review of Related Literature an Resear ches

2.3 Part – I :

Review Review of Relain India.

Fig. No.

2.3.1 Section

Review three major arscientific literac

2.3.1.1 SubsectionAbro a

Teaching strategies rconsideration f

Nebraska Department of EducationTeaching Strategies for Students with Diverse Learn ing Needssuggested strategies

I : Review of Related Literature

of related literature categorized into two ated Literature in Abroad and Review of

No. 2.2 : Structure of Review of related literature

Section – I : Review of Related Literature in Abroad

of Related Literature in Abroad strureas involved in this research namely teaching strategy,cy and scientific process skills.

Subsection – I : Literature Related with Teaching Strategy ad

Teaching strategies related articles and booksfor this study.

Nebraska Department of Education (1996) in their framework Teaching Strategies for Students with Diverse Learn ing Needs

strategies to fulfill the diverse needs of students in their

51

to two parts namely Related Literature

Review of related literature

Abroad

uctured under the y teaching strategy,

Teaching Strategy in

and books are taken into

in their framework Teaching Strategies for Students with Diverse Learn ing Needs

the diverse needs of students in their

52

classrooms. This framework encourages classroom teachers, special educators, and consultants to work together to further developed local support systems for students with specialized learning requirements. This framework consists of four sections the first section suggests a variety of classroom strategies to meet diverse learning needs for primary level. The second section consists of teaching strategies with sample activities for upper primary level. The third section contains sample activities employing some selected strategies for secondary level. The final section is a list of resources and references provided by the writing teams

Courter, S., Balaraman, P. , Lacey, J. and Hochgra f, C. (1996) in their handbook Strategies for Effective Teaching- A Handbook for Teaching Assistants. This Handbook focused on teaching strategies you can use in the classroom to foster effective learning. In this handbook COE faculty and teaching assistants have identified and described the ten categories of effective teaching strategies in this Handbook. Each description consists of an introduction , scope, examples, and conclusions which include student responses to the strategies.

Jarrett, D.(1997) in his book Inquiry Strategies for Science and Mathematics Learning. He discussed meaning of inquiry, use of inquiry to Improves student attitude, achievement and facilitated student understanding, creating an inquiry-based classroom, Implications for curriculum, how to plan an inquiry lesson. He also focused on challenges of inquiry-based teaching.

Wehrli, G., Nyquist, J. G. (2003) in their article Teaching Strategies/Methodologies : Advantages, Disadvantages/ Cautions, Keys to Success focused on different teaching strategies with advantages, disadvantages and key to success for ex. Brainstorming- A process for generating multiple ideas/options in which judgment is suspended until a maximum number of ideas has been generated. Following generation of ideas, options are typically analyzed, a best solution identified, and a plan of action developed.

Advantages

• Actively involves learners in higher levels of thinking

• Promotes peer learning and creates synergy

• Promotes critical thinking

• Helps groups reach consensus

Disadvantages

• Requires that learners discipline their inputs to the discussion(generate ideas without making judgments)

• May not be effective with large groups

• Can lead to “group think

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Keys to Success

• Use to stimulate thinking, creativity, inquiry, and consensus

• Do not use the method when there is only one or a few possible “correct” responses

• Provide clear instructions for how the process works

• Ensure that participants adhere to the rules

Department for Education and Skills (2004) produced in their article Strengthening teaching and learning in science through using different pedagogies

This guidance is designed for science subject leaders and senior leadership teams. It provides guidance on the use of the five science self-study units. Strengthening teaching and learning in science by :

• using group talk and argument

• using active questioning

• improving the learning climate

• using models and modeling techniques

• teaching the science of contemporary issues.

This booklet is divided into four sections. The first briefly outlines the importance of Continuing Professional Development for science teachers. The second provides an overview of what each study unit contains. The third section explores how the units can be used flexibly, utilizing a number of models of support. Lastly, there is information about where teacher can go for extra support in the management of these units in their department.

Gonick, L. and Criddle, C. (2005) in their The Cartoon Guide to Chemistry , a black and white comic book that covers all the major topics taught in high school and college chemistry, but with a difference. Humorous drawings and dialogues between a variety of characters in the book capture the attention of students more effectively than a standard textbook.

The book starts with the basic concepts of chemistry, atoms and molecules, and ends with the most complex, organic chemistry. In twelve chapters, each organized around a key topic; Gonick and Criddle introduce novices to complex concepts with humor and style. The chapter titles are often good hooks for the content, beginning with hidden ingredients; matter becomes electric, togetherness (bonding), (chemical reactions, heat of reaction, matter in a state, solutions, reaction rate and equilibrium, acid basics, chemical thermodynamics, electrochemistry, and organic chemistry). This book can function as a comprehensive review for summative assessments such as unit tests or final exams. It can also be used as supplemental material while each topic is being covered.

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Downing, W. (2005) in his article Effective EL Science Instructional Strategies Compiled 25 instructional strategies with explanation in short. For example Cooperative Groups – Teacher facilitates students working together to achieve shared learning goals. Words and a Picture, Modeling, Pull Out and Talk/Write, Interactive Learning Wall

Brendzel, S. D. (2005) in his book Strategies for Successful Science Teaching explained Strategies for Successful Science Teaching is an exciting new text for science education classes, and a supplement for teachers of science (especially new teachers). Easy to navigate and presented in a discussion-style format, the book deal with: the inquiry approach, process skills, lesson planning, adapting science for special needs students, integrating science with other subjects, .assessment of science activities, .technology and other creative teaching strategies, and .research and resources. Most chapters include a sample lesson plan with hands-on activities that illustrate the concepts discussed. In some instances, several examples are included. Appropriate websites are also provided. The chapters are short and readable. Appendices include lists of curriculum kits, activity books, organizations, periodicals, suppliers, and technology resources, in addition to the typical bibliography.

Marzano, (2006) in his article Marzano's Nine Instructional Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning identified nine instructional strategies that are most likely to improve student achievement across all content areas and across all grade levels. Author elaborated nine instructional strategies with applications. 1) Identifying Similarities and Differences 2) Summarizing and Note Taking 3) Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition 4) Homework and Practice 5) Nonlinguistic Representations 6) Cooperative Learning 7) Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback 8) Generating and Testing Hypotheses 9) Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers.

Glasgow, N. A., Cheyne, M. & Yerric, R. K. (2010) in their book What Successful Science Teachers Do : 75 Research-B ased Strategies presented 75 research-based strategies for effective science instruction. Each strategy includes a brief description of the research, the classroom applications, possible pitfalls during implementation, and the source citations for those who want to learn more. These strategies allow science educators in Grades 5-12 to differentiate instruction within an inquiry approach. Teachers will learn how to: Engage students in inquiry-based science, promote collaborative learning Incorporate technology into activities and assignments ,use formative assessment to engage students in content and instruction. Build students' scientific literacy and reasoning skills and involve parents in their children's science learning.

Marcarelli, K. (2010) in his book Teaching Science With Interactive Notebooks provided examples from student notebooks and explains how to implement an interactive process that build up critical thinking skills and collaborative abilities as students:

55

• Create personalized notebooks and use them to record the results of their inquiry-based investigations.

• Participate in discussions using evidence and ideas from notebooks.

• Expand upon their learning by writing conclusions, summaries, and self-reflections.

• Make connections between science facts and broader concepts.

• Complete engaging homework assignments that emphasize classroom learning.

Chalufour, I. (2010) in his article Learning to Teach Science: Strategies that Support Teacher Practice discussed a course that was designed to build teachers’ PSK—Foundations of Science Literacy (FSL). This course combines face-to-face instruction with mentoring and performance-based assignments. FSL include six key elements shown to be helpful in supporting teacher learning: (1) an approach to inquiry-based science teaching, (2) carefully selected science content, (3) a hands-on, inquiry-based approach to teachers’ own learning, (4) opportunities to apply new learning through analysis, (5) performance-based assignments, and (6) ongoing mentoring. The article concludes with a discussion of FSL’s impact and the challenges of taking a professional development program such as FSL to scale.

2.3.1.2 Subsection – II : Literature Related with S cientific Literacy in Abroad

Scientific literacy related articles and books are taken into consideration for this study.

Pella, O., Gale (1966) in their article ‘Referents to scientific literacy’ enlightened scientific literacy as science for valuable inhabitant. Pella analyzed almost 100 papers published between the years 1946 t o 1965 a s references for scientific literacy. The conclusion of their finding was a scientifically literate person can understand (a) basic concepts in science; (b) nature of science; (c) ethics that control scientists work; (d) interrelationships of science and society; (e) interrelationships of science and the humanities and (f) differences between science and technology.

Showalter (1974) in his article What is united science education? Part 5 elaborated Pella’s conception of scientific literacy, redesigned definition of scientific literacy which includes following seven dimensions:

1. The scientifically literate person understands the nature of scientific knowledge.

2. The scientifically literate person accurately applies appropriate science concepts, principals, laws and theories in interacting with his universe.

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3. The scientifically literate person uses processes of science in solving problems, making decisions and furthering his own understanding of the universe.

4. The scientifically literate person interacts with the various aspects of his universe in a way that is consistent with the values that underlie science.

5. The scientifically literate person understands and appreciates the joint enterprises of science and technology and the interrelationship of these with each and with other aspects of society.

6. The scientifically literate person has developed a richer, more satisfying, more exciting view of the universe as a result of his science education and continues to extend this education throughout his life.

7. The scientifically literate person has developed numerous manipulative skills associated with science and technology

Shen (1975) in his article ‘Scientific literacy and the public understanding of science’ enlightened three categories of scientific literacy; practical, civic and cultural.. Practical scientific literacy cope with the knowledge required to meet basic human needs. The second category, civic scientific literacy, covers the science knowledge and understandings needed by general public to participate in science-related public policy and decision making in areas such as health, energy and the environment. Inhabitant would then be equipped to contribute to debate about science and science-related issues. The third category, cultural scientific literacy, would effectively be the ‘academic’ education community as it squeezes the motivation and desire to know something about science as a major human being achievement

Miller’s (1981 ) in his article ‘Scientific Literacy : A conceptual and Empirical Review’ planned a multidimensional model of scientific literacy. This model consisted of three magnitudes (a) a vocabulary of scientific terms and concepts; (b) an understanding of the process of science and (c) an awareness and understanding of the impact of science and technology on individuals and society. He analyzed a minimal scientific terminology as essential to being scientifically literate person , who does not understand basic terms will find it nearly impossible to follow public discussion of scientific results. This model was contemporary in the context of the scientific society of the time and important to the consolidation of the concept of scientific literacy

Arons (1983 ) in his article Achieving wider scientific literacy identifying 12 attributes of a scientifically literate person. These 12 attributes are given below.

1. Recognize that scientific concepts are invented or created by acts of human intelligence and imagination.

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2. Recognize that to be understood and correctly used such terms require careful operational definition and an understanding that a scientific concept involves an idea first and a name afterwards.

3. Comprehend the distinction between observation and inference in a relevant context.

4. Distinguish between the occasional role of accidental discovery in scientific investigation and the deliberate strategy of forming and testing hypotheses.

5. Understand the meaning of the word theory in relation to formation, testing and validating.

6. The ability to critically question the outcomes of scientific research.

7. Have a sense that scientific concepts and theories are mutable and provisional rather than final and unalterable.

8. Comprehend the limitations inherent in scientific inquiry.

9. Develop enough basic knowledge and understanding in some area(s) of interest to allow intelligent reading and subsequent learning without formal instruction.

10. Be aware of instances in which scientific knowledge has had direct impact on intellectual history and views of the nature of the universe including humanity’s place within it.

11. Be aware of the interaction between science and society on moral, ethical and sociological planes.

12. Be aware of similarities in modes of thinking between various disciplines; for example forming concepts, testing hypotheses, discriminating between observation and inference, constructing models and doing hypothetical-deductive reasoning

American Association for the Advancement o f Science (1990 ), published report titled Science for All Americans which presented the following broad definition of scientific literacy: “Science literacy includes… being familiar with the natural world and respecting its unity; being aware of some of the important ways in which mathematics, technology and the sciences depend upon one another; understanding some of the key concepts and principles of science; having a capacity for scientific ways of thinking; knowing that science, mathematics and technology are human enterprises, and knowing what that implies about their strengths and limitations; and being able to use scientific knowledge and ways of thinking for personal and social purposes”

Hazen, Trefil (1991) in their book Achieving scientific literacy described conception of scientific literacy is heavily focused on science content yet they recognized in addition to the general facts and concepts the scientifically literate individual needs to know about how science

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works and draws conclusions, and to know scientists as real people.

Shamos’ (1995) in his books The myth of scientific literacy . He suggested that there were three levels of scientific literacy, 1) cultural scientific literacy, which related to the terms and phrases needed to follow civic debate about science issues reported in the daily news. 2) functional scientific literacy in which they are not only required to have a command of scientific glossary but be able to read, write and discuss for responding to and communicating with another member of society in a meaningful context. The third 3)true scientific literacy involved also knowing about the scientific endeavor. This encompassed for example, an awareness of major theories that form the foundations of science; how science creates order out of a random universe; aims, roles and elements of scientific experiments and investigations; the role of critical questioning; analytical and deductive reasoning; logical thought and science’s reliance upon objective evidence.

National Research Council (1996) according to National science education standards scientific literacy is defined as, "the knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic productivity"

Hurd (1997) in this article Scientific literacy: new minds for a changing world portrays the 350-year history of efforts to close the gap between academic science and science for the citizen. Today this deficiency has become an international dilemma represented the science –technology–society movement. The situation is more complicated than in the past because of the changing image in the practice of science, revolutionary changes in societies, and the emergence of an information age. These forces have outmoded current curricula in science and their goal. Science education for all students is seen as curricula that can be lived and that students can relate to. In addition, cognitive insights needed by students to select, organize, and utilize science knowledge for a productive life are listed. Students who possess these higher order thinking skills and cognitive strategies are regarded as scientifically literate

Bybee (1999 ) in his book Achieving Scientific Literacy: From Purposes to Practices recommended a comprehensive theoretical scale that is more suitable for the evaluation of scientific literacy during science studies at school, since its hierarchy can be easily transferred to instructional purposes. The scale suggests the following levels of scientific literacy:

Scientific Illiteracy - Students who cannot relate to, or respond to a reasonable question about science. They do not have the vocabulary, concepts, contexts, or cognitive capacity to identify the question as scientific.

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Nominal Scientific Literacy - Students recognize a concept as related to science, but the level of understanding clearly indicates misconceptions.

Functional Scientific Literacy - Students can describe a concept correctly, but have a limited understanding of it.

Conceptual Scientific Literacy - Students develop some understanding of the major conceptual schemes of a discipline and relate those schemes to their general understanding of science. Procedural abilities and understanding of the processes of scientific inquiry and technological design are also included in this level of literacy.

Multidimensional Scientific Literacy - This perspective of scientific literacy incorporates an understanding of science that extends beyond the concepts of scientific disciplines and procedures of scientific investigation. It includes philosophical, historical, and social dimensions of science and technology. Here students develop some understanding and appreciation of science and technology regarding its relationship to their daily lives. More specifically, they begin to make connections within scientific disciplines, and between science, technology, and the larger issues challenging society.

He refers to this framework as:

“A unique perspective that gives direction to those responsible for curriculum, assessment, research, professional development, and teaching science to a broad range of students” (p. 86).

It is also important to note, that he was aware of the fact that achieving multidimensional scientific literacy in all scientific domains is probably impossible, or a lifetime task, and may not be attainable at all.

DeBoer &George, E. (2000 ) in their article Scientific Literacy: Another Look at Its Historical and Contemporary Mea nings and Its Relationship to Science Education Reform described meaningful historical context of pre- 1950, 1950 to late 1983 and 1983 to till 1995. He focuses instead of preparing definitions of scientific literacy depending of the outcome of the specific learning’s, it should be focused broadly on the public school students and the teachers to pursue the goals which include the methodologies and content depend on the situations they are in .This will lead to public awareness in this regard and efforts will be more emphasized on scientific literacy than the science education. This will help teachers to think broadly and make experiments to help student to understand the science and its concepts.

Laugksch (2000) in his article Scientific Literacy: A Conceptual Overview discussed concept of scientific literacy in two parts, first part focused on historical context of scientific literacy and second part focused on interest groups .He identified four interest groups that are concerned with definition and nature of scientific literacy, different purposes for promoting scientific literacy, and different ways of measuring it.. These are the science education community, social scientists including public opinion researchers, sociologists and science communicators involved with

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informal science education.

He also suggested that each of the interest groups focused their concept of scientific literacy on their targeted audience. This contributes to the number of different interpretations and definitions of scientific literacy.

Oliver, J. S., Jackson, D. F. & Chun, S. (2001) in their article The Concept of Scientific Literacy: View of the Current Debate as Outgrowth of the Past Two Centuries studied historical roots of “scientific literacy” can help contemporary science educators to better address current and future controversies associated with the concept of scientific literacy. Through a selective historical overview of the idea of scientific literacy, authors have shown that modern controversies about the goal actually revolve around much older and more general debates about the broader importance of science in the general public, the purposes of science education, and the means for understanding of science through schooling, in which current scientists as well as teachers, educators are still participating.

Kjaernsli, M. & Molander, B., (2003) in their article scientific literacy- content knowledge and process skills explained definition of scientific literacy accepted by PISA. In PISA scientific literacy defined as: The capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify questions and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and help make decisions about the natural world and the changes made to it through human activity. And also explained three dimensions of scientific literacy : scientific concepts, situations and processes.

Holbrook, J. and Rannikmae, M.(2009) in their article The Meaning of Scientific Literacy summarized scientific literacy exclusively related to emphasis placed on the ‘science’ or the ‘literacy ‘.They accept that literacy is not mere reading and writing but has some more aspects. Enhancing scientific literacy can be achieved by emphasizing on nature of science ,personal skills and values.

They mentioned relevance of science education with respect to students is multidimensional and depends on several components. They put forward four aspects of relevance related to the study of science in school:

1. Personal - relevance Science lessons needs to be relevance from a student’s perspective

2. Professional - relevance Science lessons need to give insights into possible professions

3. Social - relevance Provide insights into the role of science in human and social issues

4. Personal/social - Science lessons need to help students develop into responsible citizens.

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Liu, Xiufeng (2009) in his article Beyond Science Literacy: Science and the Public . He mentioned the root cause of enhancing scientific literacy is the rapid development in economy due to progress in science and technology. In the beginning of this paper focused on definitions of science literacy in the literature and then status of science literacy in the USA and other countries. This paper then presents a new concept of science literacy as life-long participation in science i.e. science and the public. This new concept expands science literacy to understand it as both extrinsic and intrinsic, and a life-long process, which expands science literacy from school science to ongoing participation in science activities in society by citizens of all ages. This paper finally mentions two important approaches to achieve the expanded concept of science literacy that include bridging formal and informal science education, and training science and the public educators through graduate programs on science and the public.

Yuenyong, Chokchai (2009) in his article Scientific Literacy and Thailand Science Education studied interpretations of the term scientific literacy in Thailand, and investigated the implications of this for science education. After reviewed Thai literature study found that, the goals of science education are shaped by the notion of scientific literacy. Organizations such as UNESCO, ICASE, SEAMEO-RECSAM and PISA activities, influence the issue of scientific literacy in Thailand. And Thai literature about scientific literacy suggested that scientific literacy in Thailand is related to the application of scientific knowledge with respective social economic, technology, value and cultural surroundings and desirable characteristics’ of people who held basic scientific knowledge and skills.

Jeff West , Peggy F. Hopper (2010) in their paper Science Literacy : Is Classroom Instruction Enough?

Classroom instructions are binded to text books and the perception of teacher. But student should be challenged in and out of classroom to meet the demands a changing world because science is the field which changes day bay . There should me more focus on hands on activities, experimentation, research projects etc. The balance is always necessary in classroom instructions and out of class activities like hands on activities. This research tells "Students are in danger of becoming ignorant of the outside world if all learning time is spent in the classroom."

Grant, Maria and Lapp, Diane (2011) in their article Teaching Science Literacy they mentioned as part of working toward scientific literacy for students, teachers must consider the concept of critical literacy in science. Meaning they have the ability to read, write, think, and talk about real-world science issues. So that author proposed four actions to promote critical literacy in science classrooms.

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1. Identify science topics of interest

2. Engage students in reading the research.

3. Teach students to read like scientists.

4. Guide learners to evaluate data.

Teaching focused on fostering critical literacy has far-reaching implications. As young people experience such instruction, they become more perceptive about the world around them and more empowered to make decisions about how they interact with that world.

2.3.1.3 Sub Section - III : Literature Related with Scientific Process Skills in Abroad

Scientific process skills related articles and books are taken into consideration for this study.

UNESCO (1969-70) in books New trends in integrated science teaching, Vol. I included the following skills in the order of sequences given below :

1. Observing - carefully and thoroughly

2. Reporting - completely and accurately what is observed

3. Organizing - information acquired by the above process

4. Generalizing - on the basis of acquired information

5. Predicting - as a result of these generalizations

6. Designing - experiments to check these predictions

7. Using models - to explain phenomena where appropriate

8. Continuing the process - of inquiry when new data do not conform to predictions.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (1980) launched a programme named Science- A Process Approach (SAPA), which stresses the laboratory method of instruction and the learning of scientific processes by children. The processes are carefully analyzed into eight basic and five integrated processes. They are given below:

Basis Processes

a) Observing : Using five senses to obtain information

b) Using space/time : Describing spatial relationships and their relationship change with time

c) Classifying : Imposing order on collections of objects or events

d) Using numbers : Identifying quantitative relationships in nature

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e) Measuring : Measuring length, area, volume, weight, temperature, force, and speed

f) Communicating : Expressing ideas with oral and written words, diagrams, maps, graphs, mathematical equations, and various kinds of visual demonstrations.

g) Predicting : Making specific forecasts of what a future observation will be.

h) Inferring : An explanation of an observation.

Integrated Processes

1. Controlling variables : Studying the influence of changing variables, the factors, which influence one another

2. Interpreting data : Using data to make inferences, predictions and hypotheses, the statistical treatments given to such interpretations, and the study of probability.

3. Formulating hypotheses : Making generalized statements of explanations

4. Defining operationally : Defining terms in the context of experience

5. Experimenting : Larger process of using basic and integrated process

Murphy, P. and Gott, R. (1984) i n their article The Assessment of frame work for science at ages 13 and 15 identifies six Science Activity Categories (SAC) They are listed below :

1. use of graphical and symbolic representation

2. use of apparatus and measuring instruments

3. observation

4. application and interpretation of concepts and data

5. planning investigations

6. carrying out investigations

Des (1985 b) in his article General Certificate of Secondary Education - The National criteria science emphasized on development of skills. They are enlisted below:

a) the relative weight given to skills and methods must increase

b) the relative weight given to facts and terminology must decrease

c) experimental work must be included

d) Everyday life and socio-economic implications of science must be considered

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Ilea (1987) in his talk Science in process, Ten units and teachers guide 1987). It draws attention to the following process skills :

1. applying

2. interpreting

3. classifying

4. investigating

5. evaluating

6. observing

7. experimenting

8. predicting

9. hypothesizing

10. raising questions

11. inferring

National Committee on Science Education Standards a nd Assessment (1994) in their document focused on advanced inquiry as an important standard for grades 9 through 12. Inquiry in the classroom is a means for promoting and supporting students' curiosity and questioning spirit. Inquiry is a critical component of the science curriculum at all grade levels and in every domain of science. It serves four essential functions:

a) to assist in the development of an understanding of scientific concepts

b) to develop an understanding of the nature of scientific inquiry

c) to develop the skills and the disposition to use them necessary to become independent inquirers about the natural world

d) as a model of how we know and what we know in science

Vitti, Debbye and Torres, Angie (2006) in their handbook Practicing Science Process Skills at Home discussed name the major science process skills, how we use science process skills not only in the “lab” but in everyday life ,how to practice science process skills with your children ,List of activities used to teach the science process skills.

Burakfeyziog (2009) in his research An Investigation of the Relationship between Science Process Skills with Ef ficient Laboratory Use and Science Achievement in Chemistry Education investigated whether science process skills and efficient laboratory use are significantly correlated with the university students’ basic chemistry course achievement. The Questionnaire , The Efficient Laboratory Attitude Scale and Science Achievement Test used for data collection.. The sample consisted of 180 university students who took the general

65

chemistry course in the second semester of the academic year 2006–07.

Result of study found that a positively significant and linear relationship between science process skills taught in laboratory applications and efficient laboratory use of the students; between their efficient laboratory use and their achievement in the course; and between their science process skills and achievement in the course.

Listo, Maeve (2013) in her article Scientific Process Skills in Primary Scienc e discussed important of scientific process skills in primary level. Science at primary level should reflect science in the real world, where children act like scientists, practicing scientific process skills, learning collaboratively, taking an active role in their own learning and carrying out investigations to answer problems and test their ideas and prior knowledge. She also focused on Scientific Process Skills in the Irish Primary Science Curriculum with example.

2.3.2 Section - II : Review of Related Literature i n India

Review of Related Literature in India structured under the three major areas involved in this research namely teaching strategy, scientific literacy and scientific process skills.

2.3.2.1 Subsection – I : Literature related with te aching strategy in India

Teaching strategies related articles and books are taken into consideration for this study.

Dayal, Deepak (2007) in his book Modern Methods of Teaching Physics elaborated how to teach physics effectively. This book focused on variety of tools for improving both teaching and learning of physics. Book consists of Modern teaching strategies, methodology for physics teachers, ICTs in physics teaching.

Ray, Biswajit (2007) in his book Modern Methods of Teaching Chemistry described innovative approaches to teach chemistry effectively. Teaching of chemistry is dissimilar from teaching other disciplines, as applied or practical aspect is similarly important in chemistry teaching besides the theory. This book concentrates on many issues and approaches to chemistry teaching. It also purposes ways of building competency in chemistry teachers.

Bhatt, Richa (2007) in her book Modern Methods of Teaching Biology designed for per-service and in–service biology teachers interested in learning more about how to teach biology effectively. This book contains importance of image, Usage of sport science approach, use of video, field work, formal lectures and talks, cooperative learning strategy, group exercises

Damodharan and Rengarajan.(2008) in their study Innovative Methods of Teaching evaluated the traditional methods of teaching as well as multimedia teaching and to suggest other useful teaching methods that can be attempted in imparting knowledge to the student. As result of study ,the use of innovative methods in educational institutions has the potential not only to improve education, but also to empower people,

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strengthen governance and galvanize the effort to achieve the human development goal for the country. Innovative methods involve multimedia teaching tools e.g. MS PowerPoint, Astound Graphics and Flash Slide Show Software, Windows Movie Maker, Winamp. Mind map, Z to A approach, Role playing and scenario analysis based teaching.

2.3.2.2 Subsection - II : Literature Related with s cientific literacy in India

Scientific literacy related articles and books are taken into consideration for this study.

NCERT (2000) focused in National Curriculum Framework for School Education at the upper primary and secondary stage teaching of ‘Science and Technology’ in place of ‘science’ ,so as to familiarize the learner with various dimensions of scientific and technological literacy .

Radha Mohan (2002) in his book Innovative Science Teaching has discussed meaning of scientific literacy, traits of scientifically literate person and role of the science teacher in promoting scientific literacy.

NCERT (2006) in position paper National Focus Group on Teaching of science discussed on nature of science, science education, research in science education, brief history of science curriculum at national level ,aims of science education and organization of curriculum at different stage. Also focused that curriculum at the upper primary stage should provide enough opportunities to learners to attain some basic levels of scientific literacy.

This paper also focuses on equity in science education. In democratic society equity in education is fundamental goals such as in India. But our education system has failed to achieve this goal in area of quality science education. It is happen, many of school going student become scientific illiterate because these student belong to underprivileged socioeconomic community mostly from rural areas.

Rai, A. K. (2011) in his paper Science education and nature of science : a review with reference to Indian context entitled that scientific literacy has emerged as the ultimate goal of science education because dependence and interrelatedness of science and society provide a new dynamics to the goals of science education. So that changing demands of society the goals need to be reviewed and redefined. He was encircled that Nature of Science (NOS) as an important and expected dimension of scientific literacy. This paper puts a spotlight on importance of NOS as an educational outcome as well as education policy and circular guidelines for Indian school education

Arvind Gupta (2012) in article Indian ranks 73rd out of 74 countries- PISA findings - time to take stock of ai ling education system and come out of denial mode focused on important of scientific literacy in India. He was encircled that India is first and foremost, come out of the denial mode and acknowledge that something is seriously lacking in our elementary & secondary education policy. The general findings from PISA result extremely important. It's not just about certain schools and certain students belonging to certain strata doing well. It's

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about complete overhaul of the elementary & secondary education, which makes education more relevant in our everyday life. It's time we realize this.

2.2.2.3 Sub Section- III: Literature related with s cientific process skills in India

Scientific process skills related articles and books are taken into consideration for this study.

Ramesh, M. & Patel, R. C. (2013) in their article Critical Pedagogy for Constructing Knowledge and Process Ski lls in Science discussed about Critical pedagogy is one of the methods which provides an opportunity to reflect critically and it is giving primacy to children’s experiences, their voices, and their active participation. Critical pedagogy is a method to raise students’ awareness. They also focused on concept of Critical Pedagogy and science process skills , important of science process skills, Critical Pedagogy and Process Skills.

Result of Study was the critical pedagogy approach will develop the student’s critical consciousness of students through the process skills in science that can help them acquire the scientific concepts.

Sheeba, M. N. (2013) in article An Anatomy of Science Process Skills In The Light Of The Challenges to Realize Sc ience Instruction Leading To Global Excellence in Education discussed concept of science process skills with example and Competency indicators. Briefly emphasized on review of literature, important of science process skills in this world of knowledge explosion and process skill based science instruction seems essential for attaining global excellence in education.

2.4 Part - II : Review of Related Research

Review of related research categorized into two sections namely Review of Related Literature in Abroad and Review of Related Literature in India.

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Fig. No. 2.3 : Structure of Review of Related Resea rch

2.4.1 Section - I : Review o

Review of Related three major areas involved iscientific literacy and scientif

2.4.1.1 Sub Section - I : ResearchAbroad

Teaching strategies rconsideration for this study.

Finney, Mary (2002) Changing Science Misconceptionssessions. In session one the student exposed to printchoice questions and application task was carried out. In session two the same procedures carried out using alternate media. 153 students from 5grade students were randomly assigned to either a video

Fig. No. 2.3 : Structure of Review of Related Resea rch

of Related Research in Abroad

Literature in Abroad structured underin this research namely teaching strategy,fic process skills.

Research Related with Teaching Strategy

Teaching strategies related researches are taken into

in her research Role of Print and Video in Changing Science Misconceptions study was carried out in two sessions. In session one the student exposed to print-video and multiple choice questions and application task was carried out. In session two the same procedures carried out using alternate media. 153 students from 5

students were randomly assigned to either a video-print or print

r the teaching strategy,

Teaching Strategy in

taken into

Role of Print and Video in study was carried out in two

video and multiple choice questions and application task was carried out. In session two the same procedures carried out using alternate media. 153 students from 5th

print or print-

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video group. The study of these two sessions did not earned significant difference, Low and high ability readers performed significantly better in using print media. But treatment of video media is found entertaining rather than educational. But it can be used effectively inside the science classroom using strategies suggested in this research especially for those who are having low reading capability.

Coştu, Bayram (2007) in his research Learning Science through the PDEODE Teaching Strategy: Helping Students Make Sense of Everyday Situations investigated effectiveness of PDEODE (Predict-Discuss- Explain-Observe-Discuss-Explain) teaching strategy in helping students make sense of everyday situations. For this purpose condensation concept was chosen among many science concepts since it is related to many everyday-life events. Forty-eight eleventh graders students were involved in this study. In order to evaluate students’ application of their knowledge to problem solving in everyday situations, a test including two everyday problems were presented to them as pre- and post-test. As an intervention phase, two PDEODE tasks were utilized to teach condensation. The test scores were analyzed both qualitative and quantitative methods. Result of the study suggested that the PDEODE teaching strategy either facilitates students to help students make sense of everyday situations or helps students to achieve better conceptual understanding for the concept of condensation.

Hudson, P. (2007) in his research High-impact teaching for science investigated that teaching practices of teacher that make a differentiation and construction of students positive long-term memories about their science education.

In this qualitative study, 167 adults (pre-service primary teachers) aged between 19 and 51 responded to a questionnaire that focused on their positive and negative primary science education experiences. They analyzed responses from questionnaire about their definitions of science, memories of positive and negative primary science education experiences, and high-impact science lessons that influenced them. Results of the study indicated that high-impact teaching for science included: teachers enthusiasm, targeting misconceptions, excursions, usable and practical science, group work, hands-on experiences, and interactivity with life. Low or negative impact involved: disengaging activities such as sensory-repulsive tasks, unclear reasons for learning science, teachers lack of enthusiasm, chalk and talk or copying teachers work, and denigrating students personal ideas.

The researcher recommend that Implementing science teaching with one or more elements of high-impact teaching may lead towards making a difference and construct students positive long-term memories about their science education

Cabrera, Matilda (2008) in her research The Poetry of Science: Effects of Using Poetry in a Middle School ELD Scie nce Classroom focused on six students: a male and a female each, of high, middle, and low academic performance. The session was carried out over six weeks

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and had three trials. “Cinquain (poetic form that employ a 5-line pattern)” poetry sessions were used for the trials. Students were assigned to use vocabulary word as a subject for their Cinquain poetry after teaching science subject & quiz. The research showed the use of poetry enriches science vocabulary and student believed that poetry session would be helpful for understanding new vocabulary.

Aziz, Zahara and Rahmat, Rozalina (2011) in their research Teaching Strategies to Increase Science Subject Ach ievement: Using Videos for Year Five Pupils in Primary School . They examined the impact of using videos as a teaching strategy for delivering scientific knowledge to pupils in primary schools. Science is a core subjects in primary and secondary schools in Malaysia, so it is important to ensure that pupils do grasp the basic concepts. The study applied quantitative methods on a sample of 18 pupils in Year Five. Data were analyzed using SPSS descriptive statistics and translated into tables and diagrams. The authors found that a video teaching strategy helps pupils improve their understanding of basic concepts and knowledge in Science classes. Pupils showed positive changes in attitude and interest, so learning science can then become fun.

Lartson, C. A.(2013) in his research Effects of Design-Based Science Instruction on the Science Problem-Solving Skills among Different Groups of High-School Traditional Chemist ry Students investigated whether DBS affects student problem solving competency and chemistry achievement across student demographics (gender, race and SES). Researcher adopted a quasi-experimental pre-post-test research study.

The result of the study as follow: 1. DBS significantly improved the problem solving competency of students in the study, 2. DBS significantly improves the problem solving competency of both males and females, with a slight urge among females, 3. the differences in the effects of DBS in improving problem solving competency among Black and Hispanic students in this study was not statistically significant, however, Black students and Hispanic female students showed significant improvement in problem solving competency after the DBS instruction, d) DBS did not statistically significantly improve the problem solving competency of students of particularly SES group(s), and 4. Problem solving competency is a strong predictor of higher chemistry concepts score among students in both treatment and control groups.

2.4.1.2 Sub Section - II : Research Related with Sc ientific Literacy in Abroad

Scientific literacy related researches are taken into consideration for this study.

Glynn, S. M. and Muth, K. D. (1994 ) in their research Reading and Writing to Learn Science: Achieving Scientific Literacy has explained an importance of designing curriculum for developing scientific literacy among students as well teachers and student

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teachers. A key step in helping students to achieve scientific literacy is to ensure that each school’s curriculum supports students’ efforts to learn science meaningfully. So that in a scientific literacy curriculum, reading and writing can serve as dynamic vehicles for learning science meaningfully. The task of educational researchers is to show how reading and writing can be used most effectively to support science learning.

Yates, Bradford L. (1998) in his research Achieving Scientific Literacy through the Mass Media and Other Communica tion Technologies: A NASA Perspective a qualitative research approach was used to investigate in achieving scientific literacy through mass media and other communication technologies. Six in-depth telephone interviews were conducted with various NASA education and public affairs officers throughout the country. It was found that mass media and other communication technologies that together contribute to increasing the level of scientific literacy among the public. Mass media and other communication technologies have their place in informing and educating the public about science,

OECD (2000) in their study Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) evaluated education systems worldwide by testing the skills and knowledge of 15-year-old students in participating countries. The PISA tests are carried out every three years (2000, 2003, 2006 and 2009). PISA assesses how far students near the end of compulsory education have acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in society. In all cycles, the domains of reading, mathematical and scientific literacy are covered not merely in terms of mastery of the school curriculum, but in terms of important knowledge and skills needed in adult life.

Araújo,T. C. (2000) in their research Introducing activities for scientific literacy and popularization the academic formation of young biological scientists in Brazil suggested an innovative approach to enhance science knowledge by course conducted in Brazil named “Scientific literacy and popularization. A course composed of 70% practical activities, 10 % seminars and 20 % lectures. Its most innovative component is the required generation of a practical product for science popularization at the end of the course, minimizing the importance commonly given to exams, texts, seminars and paperwork.

Brossard, Dominique (2001 ) in his research Scientific Literacy: Scientific and Technical Vocabularies in Media Cove rage he developed an instrument for the measure of public knowledge of the terms included in the vocabulary list that created through an analysis of general printed media. And tested a novel approach to the conceptualization and measurement of a dimension of scientific literacy, the understanding of scientific and technical terms..

Parkinson, Jean and Adendorff, Ralph (2004) in their study The use of popular science articles in teaching sci entific literacy has focused the use of popular science articles in teaching scientific

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literacy. And suggested that popular articles can make science more accessible to students, and so can play a useful role in the teaching of scientific writing as well as in the teaching of science.

Kelly, B. Peter, G. Paul, P. & Rick, S. (2004) in their research paper assessing the Scientific Literacy of Younger Stude nts: Moving on from the Stereotypes of the Draw-a-Scientist-Tes t- has focused on a new measurement of scientific literacy Draw-A-Scientist-Test (DAST). However, the present study used semi-structured interviews with primary school students to examine their perceptions about scientists prior to administration of the DAST. The study found that the DAST only addressed one aspect of the scientific literacy of these primary age students. One way to interpret the pattern of differences observed for student drawings versus student talk is to postulate that students can express at least two levels of conceptualization about scientists. The act of drawing captures the scientist's prototypical qualities but the opportunity to talk allows for a fuller and more accurate account of what it is to be a scientist.

Reveles, John M.; Cordova, Ralph and Kelly, Gregor y J. (2004) in their study Science literacy and academic identity formulation has highlights ethnographic study that aims towards a co-development of science literacy and academic identity formulation within a third-grade classroom. The outcome this investigation shows that joint practices, activities and science conversations in classroom between the students enabled them to get science knowledge in collective manner. By investigating the ways by student collaborated their science knowledge and after examining their performances within and across events, the authors proved co-development of students' academic identities and scientific literacy. The intersection of academic identities with the development of scientific literacy provides a basis for considering specific ways to achieve scientific literacy for all students.

Biernacka, Beata and Ebenezer, Jazlin (2005 ) in their study Developing Scientific Literacy in Grade Five Learne rs: A Teacher-Researcher Collaborative Effort study investigated that role of teacher-researcher collaborative work for development Scientific Literacy in grade five learners. Study found that scientific literacy was achieved because of the collaborative efforts of a researcher and a second-year public school teacher. Study encircled that science educators and/or researchers ought to collaborate with novice teachers to help them translate the ideas learned in the science methods courses into their classroom practice.

Nwagbo, Chinwe (2006) in his research Effects of two teaching methods on the achievement in and attitude to biolo gy of students of different levels of scientific literacy investigated the relative efficacy of the guided inquiry and the expository teaching methods on the achievement in and attitude to biology of students of different levels of scientific literacy. A pre-test, post-test, non-equivalent control group design was adopted for the study. One hundred and forty-seven Senior

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Secondary Two (SS11) biology students from eight intact classes, randomly selected from four secondary schools. The research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation scores, while the hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).

Result of the study showed that the guided inquiry method was significantly better than the expository method in enhancing cognitive achievement in Biology for students of all levels of scientific literacy, especially the high ones. Students of different levels of scientific literacy showed positive attitude to biology, when the two methods were used..

Schwartz, Yael (2006) in his study The use of scientific literacy taxonomy for assessing the development of chemical literacy among high-school students he investigated the attainment of chemical literacy among 10th-12th grade Chemistry students in Israel. Based on existing theoretical frameworks, assessment tools were developed, which measured students’ ability to: a) recognize chemical concepts as such (nominal literacy); b) define some key-concepts (functional literacy); c) use their understanding of chemical concepts to explain phenomena (conceptual literacy); and d) use their knowledge in Chemistry to read a short article, or analyze information provided in commercial ads or internet resources (multi-dimensional literacy).

He was found that students improve their nominal and functional literacy; however, higher levels of chemical literacy, as defined within these frameworks, are only partly met. The findings can be helpful in the process of designing new curricula, and emphasizing certain instructional strategies in order to foster chemical literacy

Bacanak, A. and Gökdere, M. (2009 ) in their research Investigating level of the scientific literacy of p rimary school teacher candidates has determined the level of primary school teacher candidates’ scientific literacy acquired with the current science education, and second, to find out whether there is a relationship between gender and levels of scientific literacy. For data collection multiple choice test developed and used. Case study approach adopted by researcher. The findings could be interpreted that level of scientific literacy among male and female are same except in the life sciences.

Bonny, R. and Caren, B. (2009 ) in their research Citizen Science: A Developing Tool for Expanding Science Kn owledge and Scientific Literacy has focused on contribution of Citizen Science projects in development and enhancing science knowledge and Scientific Literacy among students. Also emphasized on important of citizen science projects and citizen science program model

Wenning, C. J. (2010) in his study Science literacy: What it is, how to assess it, and a way to achieve it. He discussed what is science literacy? type of science literacy i.e. nominal ,functional. conceptual and multidirectional. He developed two standardized tests based on detailed, validated definition for assessing science literacy. These are Nature of Science Literacy Test (NOSLiT),Scientific Inquiry Literacy Test (ScInqLiT).

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Discovery Learning, Interactive Demonstration, Inquiry lesson, Inquiry labs, Real-world Application, Hypothetical Explanation these ways were suggested by researcher to achieve science literacy.

Igboegwu, Ekene N. and Egbutu Rita N. (2011) in their study Effects of co-operative learning strategy and demon stration Method on acquisition of science process skills by chemist ry Students of different levels of scientific literacy they investigated that the use of co-operative learning strategy for teaching Chemistry concepts to students at different scientific literacy levels enabled them to acquire science process skills better than using demonstration method of teaching. There was no interaction effect of scientific literacy levels and teaching methods on Chemistry students acquisition of science process skills.

Jamie S. Foster & Nikita Shiel-Rolle(2011) in their research Building scientific literacy through summer science camps : a strategy for design, implementation and assessmen t suggested, through school programs or science learning centers, however, in many rural communities science resources are unavailable. Alternate strategies are needed to provide individuals with quality educational opportunities. One such option is the development of short term science camps. Science camps can provide both researchers and teachers with the opportunity to disseminate important scientific findings and concepts to a broad audience. In this paper author presented a brief guide for those educators interested in developing a short term science camps as a means to promote scientific education and literacy.

Soobard, R., Rannikmäe, M. (2012) Assessing student ’s level of scientific literacy using interdisciplinary scen arios developed an instrument for assessing grade 10 and 11 student’s levels of scientific literacy in the areas of problem solving and decision making. The study used four interdisciplinary situations in a personal, social and global context, taken from everyday life, and answers were expected at higher levels of scientific thinking.

Results indicated that it is possible to develop an instrument for dividing student’s responses between levels of scientific literacy, most students responded at the functional level with very few at the multidimensional level. In the students’ opinion, the more interesting situations were those in a personal and social context. Students justified this by answering that their capability to solve problems and make decisions by utilizing science knowledge and skills was best in such situations.

Gormally, C., Brickman, P. and Lutz, M. (2012) in their research developing a Test of Scientific Literacy Skills (T OSLS): Measuring Undergraduates’ Evaluation of Scientific Information and Arguments described the development, validation, and testing of the Test of Scientific Literacy Skills (TOSLS). The test measures skills related to major aspects of scientific literacy: recognizing and analyzing the use of methods of inquiry that lead to scientific knowledge and the ability to

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organize, analyze, and interpret quantitative data and scientific information. Authors have proposed that Biology instructors can use the TOSLS to evaluate their students’ proficiencies in using scientific literacy skills and to document the impacts of curricular reform on students’ scientific literacy.

The NAP (National Assessment Program) (2012 ) — this program assess scientific literacy. This assessment also includes asking investigable questions, conducting investigations, collecting and interpreting data and making decisions.

Mahbub Sarkar (2012) in his paper Teaching for scientific literacy : Bangladeshi teachers’ perspectives, prac tices and challenges This paper reports how understanding of scientific literacy achieved by employing case study approach among pupils. This research showed participating teachers held a range of perspectives of scientific literacy, in practice they demonstrated limited capacity to translate their perspectives into their classroom teaching practice. They mostly promoted a culture of academic science that reduces the capacity to make science important to all students in their everyday lives and in developing scientifically literate students

Gambler, Johanna Krontiris, Litowitz (2013) in their research Using Primary Literature to Teach Science Literacy to Introductory Biology Students to enhance science knowledge among Undergraduate students using scientific literature and reduce deficiencies in their science literacy skills, authors have developed strategy for using science literature to teach science. It was two year study, in first year authors investigated student's science literacy skills, created a set of science literacy learning objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy and developed a set of assignments. In next year effectiveness of the assignments and the learning objectives were evaluated. Results of this study suggested that building scientific literacy is a continual process which begins in first-year science courses with a set of fundamental skills that can serve the progressive development of literacy skills throughout the undergraduate curriculum.

2.4.1.3 Sub Section - III : Research Related with S cientific Process Skills in Abroad

Scientific process skills related researches are taken into consideration for this study.

Macbeth, M. G. (1974) in his research the extent to which pupils manipulate materials an attainment of process skill s in elementary school science . He tested the importance of manipulative experience in the attainment of science process skills for kindergarten and third grade students. The study focused on a specific kind of learning task for acquisition of science process skills. The investigator taught four kindergarten and four third grade students and given them exercises from SAPA programme over a period of 14 weeks. The data collected from the kindergarten and third grade experiments suggested that the influence of direct first hand manipulative experiences in the development of process

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skills is more important for the kindergarten children than for older children.

Pappelis et. al. (1980 ) in his study Can instruction improve science process skills of premedical and pre-dental students determined the effectiveness of a semester long course modeled after the AAAS's Science - A Process Approach, on the achievement of science process skills. It was found that using the test of science processes as pre and post test, improvement was demonstrated in the thinking skills of medical education preparatory programme students, when SAPA and SAPA like activities used in the curriculum. More specifically significant improvement was made in the skills of measuring, quantifying, and inferring. No significant gains were made in observing, experimenting and predicting.

Padilla, M. J. (1983) i n his study The relationship between science process skill and formal thinking ability observed integrated process skill and formal thinking abilities of middle and high school students and determine the relationship if any between the two. Resulting correlation showed a strong relationship between achievement on the two measures and all subsets of both measures. It could be inferred from the study that process skill teaching might influence formal thinking ability.

Walkoz and Yeany (1984 ) in their research Effects of lab instruction emphasizing process skills on achieveme nt of college students having different cognitive development lev els c ompared the process skill achievement of students completing traditional laboratory exercises with students not only completing the same exercises but also receiving instruction in such integrated process skills as identifying variables and stating hypotheses. Results showed that emphasis on process skills in the laboratory can significantly improve process skill achievement. Students with lower levels of cognitive development had a lower level of process skill achievement.

Khalwania, N. S. (1986) In his research Effectiveness of concept based science curriculum in developing cognitive st ructures and acquisition of process skills among high school stu dents developed a concept based science curriculum and tested its effectiveness in developing cognitive structures and acquisition of process skills. The study involved 4 independent factors, namely, curriculum types, self-concept, intelligence and socio-economic status. There were two criterion variables, namely process skills and cognitive structures. The study revealed that, (1) high socioeconomic status(SES) group did equally well in the acquisition of process skills in science,(2) the low SES following the concept based curriculum scored significantly higher on process skills than the high self-concept and high SES groups using the conventional curriculum, (3) when low ability students having low SES, taught the concept based curriculum scored higher on the process skill test than students having high self-concept and low SES but taught through conventional curriculum.

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Mason and Thomas (1990) In their research An investigation of the relative effectiveness of teacher initiated ver sus student -initiated junior high school science projects aimed at examined the effect of junior high school science projects upon the criterion variables of science attitude and science process skills while statistically controlling them for gender, past achievement, and socio economic status. Participants were divided into 3 groups (1) The teacher assigned project, (2) student self-select project , (3) no-project control. Students were allowed six weeks to complete the project assignment. Result of the study showed that there was statistically significant changes occurred in student process skills as the cause of various projects.

Song, J. and Black, P. J (1991) In their study The effects of task contexts on pupils' performance in science process skills examined the interaction effect between two of the scientific process skills (interpretation and application) in two task contexts (scientific and everyday). 228 pupils in Seoul, Korea of both sexes and in two age groups (13 and 15) were given altogether 14 pairs of paper and pencil type questions, seven on interpretation skills and seven on application skills. Result revealed the existence of an apparent interaction between process skills and contexts. Pupils' achievement on the interpretation skills was significantly higher in everyday contexts than in scientific contexts, where as in application skills it was significantly higher in scientific contexts.

Cain, M. (1992) in his study Examining two science instructional approaches: process approach and text book conducted a study to investigate the effects of process approach science instruction and text book science instruction upon the content achievement and attitude of students with different reading abilities in a third grade population. The results showed that in consider to attitude, the process science group performed significantly higher than the textbook science group. The results suggested that the process science may be the more preferred instructional approach to achieve the overall objectives of students' science education regardless of reading ability. Process science appeared to be a more effective curriculum than textbook science in accomplishing scientific literacy, which is described as a blend of knowledge, process skills and attitudes.

Germann (1994) in his research Testing a model of science process skills acquisition: An interaction with par ents' education, preferred language, gender, science attitude, cogni tive development, academic ability, and biology knowledge Path analysis techniques were used to test a hypothesized structural model of direct and indirect causal effects of student variables on science process skills. The model was tested twice using data collected at the beginning and end of the school year from 67 9th- and 10th-grade biology students who lived in a rural area. Each student variable was found to have significant effects, accounting for approximately 80% of the variance in science process skills achievement. Academic ability, biology knowledge, and language

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preference had significant direct effects. There were significant fruitful effects by cognitive development, parents' education, and attitude toward science in school. Highly productive result can be achieved in science process skills by combining results of cognitive development and academic ability and also found that academic ability; Biology knowledge and language preference had significant direct effects on science process skills achievement. The variables of cognitive development and academic ability had the greatest total effects on science process skills.

Hamil, J. Wolf (1994) in his study An analytical assessment of process skill proficiencies and problem solving per ceptions of pre-service elementary science teachers investigated the process skill proficiency and problem solving perceptions of pre-service elementary science teachers enrolled in fundamentals of science teaching. The conclusions of the study supported the following suggestions for pre-service teacher education programmes, (1) process skill instruction should be included in the instructional programmes through the use of a process skill unit in content area or in a process skill methods course, and (2) teacher educators should consider the possibility that formal reasoning ability and process skill proficiency may be identical competencies.

Anutoh, K. and Bryan (1994) in their study Science Process Skills: are they generalisable? examined the generalize ability of science process skills for students carrying out whole investigations, using a sample of 135 eighth graders in Singapore. The evidence for generalisability across different investigations is elicited in three ways: (1) pair‐wise comparison of performance across different investigations for each science process skill, (2) agreement in ranking of performance across investigations for each of the science process skill, using (3) group mean comparison across investigations for each of the science process skill,. The study discovered that the skills of preliminary trials, planning, communicating and interpreting are generalisable.

Hykle, and Jacqueline, Ann (1994) in their research Interrelationship among cognitive controls, gender, science content achievement and science process skills studied the interrelationship among cognitive controls, gender, science content achievement, and science process skills and found that the achievement in science and achievement in science process skills are significantly related.

Ahuja (1995) in his study The effects of a cooperative learning instructional strategy on the academic achievement attitudes towards science class and process skills of middle school science student determined whether the use of a co- operative learning instructional strategy would sway the academic achievement, attitudes towards science class and process skills of middle school science students. .Result of the study indicated that the use of a cooperative learning instructional strategy resulted in better academic achievement and improved attitudes towards science class of the students.

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The process skills were not affected by instructional strategy.

Germann and Aram (1996 ) in their research Student Performance on the Science Process of recording dat a, Analyzing data, Drawing conclusions, and providing evidence evaluated the students' performance on the science processes of recording data, analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and providing evidence. A total of 304 students field-tested the alternative assessment of science process skills. Their responses were used to develop a research rubric, and then this rubric was used to determine response patterns that could inform both instructions and assessment of science process skills. Only 61% of students performed the activity, and recorded data successfully. 69% of students did not attend to the hypotheses in drawing their conclusions. 81% did not provide specific evidence for their conclusions.

Dawson (2000 ) in his study The effect of explicit instruction in science process skills on conceptual change: The ca se of photosynthesis to check the Hypotheses that there is a significant, positive correlation between science process skills and understanding of Photosynthesis and find out effectiveness of explicit instruction in science process skills on conceptual change.

Results indicated that there was a significant positive correlation between science process skills and understanding of photosynthesis. The science process skill of hypothesizing showed the strongest correlation, while that of prediction had the weakest. The author found no significant effect on understanding of the concepts of photosynthesis due to either explicit instruction in science process skills.

Beaumont, Y. Walters & Kola Soyibo (2001) in their research An Analysis of High School Students' Performance on Fi ve Integrated Science Process Skills determined Jamaican high school students' level of performance on five integrated science process skills and if there were statistically significant differences in their performance linked to their gender, grade level, school location, school type, student type and socio-economic background (SEB). Data were collected with the authors' created integrated science process skills test.

The results showed that the subjects' mean score was low and disappointing; their performance in decreasing order was: interpreting data, recording data, generalizing, formulating hypotheses and identifying variables; there were statistically significant differences in their performance based on their grade level, school type, student type, and SEB in favour of the 10th graders, traditional high school students, ROSE students and students from a high SEB. There was a positive, statistically significant and fairly strong relationship between their performance and school type, but weak relationships among their student type, grade level and SEB and performance.

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Rebecca L. Hamilton, Kirk A. Swortzel (2007) in their study Assessing Mississippi aest teachers’ capacity for t eaching science integrated process skills to determined AEST (Agricultural and Environmental Science and Technology) teachers’ capacity to teach science integrated process skills. He used three instruments to assess their capacity to teach integrated process skills, determine their preferred learning styles, and determine their confidence (self-efficacy) to teach science. And result of study was AEST teachers exhibited a satisfactory level of ability in their capacity to teach integrated process skills. AEST teachers also had a high self-efficacy as far as their capacity to teach science concepts to their students.

Grace Teo Yew Mei (2007) in his research Promoting science process skills and the relevance of science through science alive! Programme conducted a study to investigate effectiveness of Science ALIVE! Programme. The findings have shown the programme enhanced their awareness of the relevance of Science in everyday life and significant increase in students’ perception of skill competency while a high percentage of students indicated that the programme has made them more aware of the relevance of Science in their lives.

Sullivan, F. R. (2008) in his study Robotics and Science Literacy : Thinking Skills, Science Process Skills and Systems Understand reported the results of a study of the relationship of robotics activity course& students utilized thinking skills and science process skills characteristic of scientifically literate individuals to solve a robotics challenge. He argued that the affordances of the robotics environment tied with a pedagogical approach highlights open-ended, extended inquiry prompts the utilization of science literacy- based thinking and science process skills and leads to increased systems understanding.

Aktamis, H. and Ergin, O. (2008) in their research The effect of scientific process skills education on students’ sc ientific creativity, science attitudes and academic achievements investigated the effects of teaching scientific process skills education to students to promote their scientific creativity, attitudes towards science, and achievements in science. The research includes a pre-test post-test research model with a control group. The sample of the research consist of 40 students at 7th grade of an elementary school .The data collection tools for the research include the “Combination of Force and Motion- the Energy” Chapter Achievement Scale the Science Attitude Scale and the Scientific Creativity Scale.

As a result of the study, it was concluded that the scientific process skills education increased the students’ achievements and scientific creativities, however, no meaningful progress was made on their attitudes towards science when compared to the teacher-centered method.

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Burakfeyziog,(2009) in his research An Investigation of the Relationship between Science Process Skills with Ef ficient Laboratory Use and Science Achievement in Chemistry Education investigated whether science process skills and efficient laboratory use are significantly correlated with the university students’ basic chemistry course achievement. The Questionnaire , The Efficient Laboratory Attitude Scale and Science Achievement Test used for data collection.. The sample consisted of 180 university students who took the general chemistry course in the second semester of the academic year 2006–07.

Result of study found that a positively significant and linear relationship between science process skills taught in laboratory applications and efficient laboratory use of the students; between their efficient laboratory use and their achievement in the course; and between their science process skills and achievement in the course.

Arnold, M. & Bourdeau, V. (2009) had developed The Science Process Skills Inventory (SPSI) to measure the ability to practice the full cycle of steps in the scientific inquiry process. The inventory measures science process skills, not science content knowledge. Therefore, it is appropriate for measurement in programs that emphasize the process of science learning along with content. The inventory consists of eleven items, each representing a different skill in the science inquiry process. Youth are prompted to respond to each statement using a 4-point Likert scale indicating how often they practice each of the items when doing science: Never (1) sometimes (2) usually (3) and always (4) suggested scoring of the SPSI is the calculation of a composite science process skills score. This is calculated by summing the individual ratings for each item. The score range for the composite score is 11-44. The inventory should not be used with programs that focused on science content only. The inventory is intended for use with youth ages 12 and over

Öztür, N. & Özden, T. (2010) in their study Science Process Skills Levels of Primary School Seventh Grade Stude nts in Science and Technology Lesson they determined the science process skill achievement level of primary school seventh grade students in a Science and Technology lesson and relations among academic background of the parents, monthly income of the parents, having a computer, having own room and students’ science process skill levels. Science Process Skills Test (SPST)” was prepared and used for data collection. Result was found that primary school seventh grade students’ science process skill levels were in middle level. And science process skill levels of the student did display differences according to parents’ academic background, their monthly income, having a computer, having own room, but the students’ SPS do not change in terms of gender.

Akinyemi & Olufunminiyi (2010) in their research Analysis of Science Process Skills in West African Senior Secon dary School Certificate Physics Practical Examinations in Niger ia analyzed the science process skills in West African senior secondary school certificate

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Physics practical examinations in Nigeria for the periods of 10 years (1998-2007). The results showed that the number of basic process skills is significantly higher than the integrated process skills in the West African senior secondary school certificate Physics practical examinations in Nigeria. It is suggested that the examination bodies in Nigeria should consist of more integrated science process skills into the senior secondary school Physics practical examinations so as to enable the students to be proned to creativity, problem solving, reflective thinking, originality and invention, which are vital components for science and technological development of any nation.

Remziye, Yeter (2011) in his research The effects of inquiry-based science teaching on elementary school student s’ science process skills and science attitude he was determined Turkish elementary school students’ level of success on science process skills and science attitudes and if there were statistically significant differences in their success degree and science attitudes depending to their grade level and teaching method. The sample was 241 students comprised of 122 males, 119 females. Pretest-post test control group and experimental group design was used. The data were collected through using Basic Science Process Skill Test and Integrated Science Process Skill Test and Science Attitude Scale. Study was conducted during the two semesters. results of the study showed that use of inquiry based teaching methods significantly enhances students’ science process skills.

Aka, E., Guvan E.,& Aydogdu, M. (2010) in his research Effect of Problem Solving Method on Science Process Skills and Academic Achievement investigated effect of problem solving method on science-process skills and academic achievement. The sample of the research is consisted of 86 3rd class teacher candidates who attended science teaching programme of Gazi Education Faculty. In this study quasi-experimental design which was pre-test/post-test control group was implemented. While experimental group (41 students) was taught problem solving method, control group (45 students) was taught traditional teaching methods in this study. Science process skills test and electric unit achievement test were administered to both groups before and after the instruction as a pre and post test. Results of study reveal that there is no significant difference between experimental and control groups students' pre science process skills and pre achievement test scores. Another result of study displays that experimental group students have higher mean scores than control group students in post science process skills and post achievement test.

Floria, M. and Nancy N. H.(2013) in their research The Effects of Using Interactive Student Notebooks and Specific Wr itten Feedback on Seventh Grade Students’ Science Process Skills determined whether the steady use meta-cognitive strategies imbedded in an Interactive Student Notebook (ISN) would impact science process skills of 7th-grade students. A sample of convenience, 7th-grade students (n = 194) was utilized for this study. Students participated for 15 weeks in one of three instructional programs. Students‘ science process skills were

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measured using Form A (pretest) and Form B (posttest) of the Diet Cola Test, and data were analyzed using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a multiple linear regression.

The application of meta-cognitive learning strategies by student with the use of an interactive student notebook (ISN) as an instructional tool appeared to impact the science process skills of 7th-grade students. Qualitative findings indicated that students liked using the ISN for science labs and believed that it benefitted their learning of science process skills. Teachers and students also believed that using the ISNs was helpful to students‘ learning because of the application of meta-cognitive strategies.

2.4.2 Section - II : Review of Related Research in India

Review of Related Research in India structured under the three major areas involved in this research namely Teaching strategy, scientific literacy and scientific process skills.

2.4.2.1 Subsection - I : Research Related with teac hing strategy in India

Teaching strategies related researches are taken into consideration for this study.

Vellaisamy, M. (2007 ) in his study Effectiveness of Multimedia Approach in Teaching Science at Upper Primary Level observed the effectiveness of multimedia on the achievement of pupils in Science at VIII standard. Experimental method was adopted by researcher. Pre-test and post test was conducted for both the groups. The control group pupils were taught through traditional method of teaching. Pre-test was conducted for both the groups. The treatment was given to experimental group through multimedia approach. As result of treatment, the pupils of the experimental group achieved more than the pupils of the control group in science at upper primary level. This is due to the positive impact of the multimedia approach in the learning of the VIII standard pupils.

Nimalkar, B. (2007) in his research Comparative study of the outcomes of teaching selected units in physics by i nductive thinking model and inquiry training model at the higher seco ndary level. He was find out relative effectiveness of inductive thinking model ,inquiry training model and conventional method in teaching of physics. The effectiveness of teaching strategies has been studied in terms of student achievement. The post test only equivalent group design was selected for present study .Sample was selected by purposive sampling techniques. Standard as well as researcher made tool used in this study.

Result of the study was Inductive Thinking Model and Inquiry Training Model created a immense effect on students learning than conventional method of teaching. It also found that Inductive Thinking Model is more effective than Inquiry Training model for teaching specific units in physics of class IX.

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Pai, B. D. (2007) in his research To study the effectiveness of instructional package in science teaching competenc ies over teachers’ performance and their impact over student s’ achievement and process skills in science. He founded effectiveness of the Instructional Package based In service Training (IPIT) program over science teaching competencies of teachers as well as, the consequence effects on students learning levels. Teaching competence determined by considering the knowledge and performance of teachers. A quasi-experimental design was adopted by researcher. Purposive and cluster sampling techniques was used. Student t-test, Pearson’s product moment correlation and Analysis of Variance these statistical techniques were used by researcher.

Product of the study was the instructional package and the related in-service training programme on science teaching competencies was found effective in improving the knowledge based science teaching competencies of teachers as well as improved the science achievement, science process skills and attitude towards science, among eighth standard students.

Kawalkar, A. and Vijapurkar, J. (2011) in their research paper What Do Cells Really Look Like? Children’s Resistan ce to Accepting a 3-D Model explained a how a barrier in science education occurs. They have chosen to teach concept of cell in Biology using 3D models, they found that student were reluctant to accept that cell is a 3D object initially. These researchers worked on this issue and succeed to remove the misconception about cell. Using this experience they have suggested some teaching strategies which are helpful for teaching science like making 3D models , using 3D objects to show relevance to 3D models, emphasize students to see around for 3D objects.

Johnson, N. (2012) in his research paper Empowerment of Science Teaching Competence of M. Ed. trainees thr ough e-Content with a Meta-cognitive Instructional Design explained use of meta-cognitive teaching methodology for instructional design in science teaching. He has used e-content which helps student- teachers to be in touch with modern developments in science. The e-content technology and Meta-cognition helpful for the student-teachers to review their thought processes and exposed them to modern techniques and hence student-teachers may be helped to regulate their thinking processes and enhance their science teaching competence.

Pinkal, C. (2013) in her research Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): Development of instructional Strategy for Bi ology Teaching focused on importance of science and science education from primary to higher education as recommended by University Grant Commission.. This may help teachers in organizing meaningful teaching learning process and adopt innovative methods and approaches in teaching. Computer assisted Instruction (CAI) is a supplementary instructional strategy in effective teaching, in the same line CAI is also used in Biological Science teaching. In this paper, researcher elaborates use,

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utility and importance of CAI in Biology teaching.

After implementation of Computer Assisted Instruction and its effectiveness in different subjects, researcher concluded that CAI is also very useful for the achievement of students in biology subject. CAI can be used as the supplementary tool by the teachers to overcome the problems of Science like lack of visualization and it may minimize constraint of education. CAI can never replace good Teaches but it complements them and helps in easier and faster learning of content.

Patil, G. P. (2013) in her study Development of Strategies for Teaching School Science by Using Heuristic Method, developed strategies for teaching school science by using heuristic method. Sample was purposive sample. Qualitative analysis of the observations made by researcher. From the analysis of the observations it was found that successfully developed two strategies i. e. 'Independent Performance Strategy' and 'Instruction Card Strategy.' strategies are effective for teaching school science by using heuristic method.

Udayakumar, P. (2013) in his study Impact of Multimedia Technology in Learning Biological Science on B.Ed. Trainees found that learning problems of the students in learning Biological science and impact of Multimedia Technology in learning Biological Science in B.Ed. college. Experimental method was adopted by researcher and self made achievement test used for data collection. Result of the study There was significant difference in achievement mean score between Pretest of Experimental group and Posttest of Experimental group in learning Biological Science by the students of B.Ed. classes. It shows that Multimedia Technology is more effective in learning Biological Science in B.Ed. college.

2.4.2.2 Subsection – II : Research Related with Sci entific Literacy in India

Scientific literacy related researches are taken into consideration for this study.

OECD (2010) Programme for International Student Assessment conducted massive survey in India .outcome of survey is very shocking .It really smashed the image of India as a superpower. Result of study was Indian ranks 73rd out of 74 countries. There is no major difference between boys and girls in how they perform in science.

Deshmukh, N. and Deshmukh, M.(2007) in their research a study of students’ misconceptions in biology at the secondary school level, they have investigated the misconceptions amongst students and identified the possible sources of misconceptions. i.e. textbooks, reference books, teachers, language, cultural beliefs and classroom practices. An open-ended test was used for data collection. Sample was selected by Simple Random Sampling method. Result of the study that they find out, misconception related to human physiology, breathing and respiration, photosynthesis process, digestive system, function of vitamins. To overcome misconceptions they have suggested

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key points -Teacher Preparation, Use of innovative techniques, Curriculum Modification, Development of Enrichment Material.

Deshmukh, N. and Deshmukh, M. (2009) in their research textbook: a source of students’ misconceptions at t he secondary school level discussed the reasons of creating the misconceptions. So that the authors analyzed NCERT and SCERT Science textbooks of secondary level and identified that the textbook is one of the sources of students’ misconceptions. School textbook is a major resource in teaching and learning process. The accurate information, illustrations and clarity of contents included in the textbooks play an important role in the learning process. Therefore, result of the study showed that textbook carefully chosen in order to facilitate students’ learning and to prevent the misconceptions being reinforced and/or induced.

2.4.2.3 Sub Section –III : Research Related with Sc ientific Process Skills in India

Scientific process skills related researches are taken into consideration for this study.

Bhargava, S. N. L. (1986) in his study A study of the measuring process in science in relation to certain cognitive and social variables made an attempt to study the process of measuring which the pupils are required to develop for acquiring scientific knowledge at the school stage. The relationship between the scores on the process of measuring and other variables such as pupil's residence, sex, age, intelligence, SES, and achievement in Physics was also determined. The study found that the relationship between the performance on the process of measuring and intelligence (r= 0.308) and achievement in Physics (r=0.377) are positively and significantly correlated.

Sebastian, (1993 ) in his study A survey of selected inquiry skills among standard nine students of Mangalore ci ty corporation conducted a survey of selected enquiry skills among standard nine students of Mangalore City Corporation, which discovered that boys and girls are equally good in process skills, but the skill of observation seems to be higher among boys. Science club membership and other science facilities seems to be significantly related to the acquisition of science enquiry skills.

Roth, W. M. & Roy C. A. (1993) in their study The development of science process skills in authentic contexts intended to observe the development of integrated science process skills in the context of open- inquiry laboratory sessions. The data collection approach was qualitative. Result of the study indicate that students develop higher-order process skills through nontraditional laboratory experiences that provided the students with freedom to perform experiments of personal relevance in authentic contexts. Students learned to, (a) identify and define pertinent variables (b) interpret, transform and analyze data (c) plan and design an experiment and (d) formulate hypotheses. The study suggests that process skills need not be taught separately.

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Integrated process skills develop gradually and reach a high level of sophistication when experiments are performed in meaningful contexts.

Sharma, S. (1994) in his research Effectiveness of an instructional programme in the development of proce ss skills among elementary school children provided proof for the effectiveness of a systematic instructional programme on the development of process skills. His study also exposed that the teachers' style characterized by a thoughtful cognitive demand, emphasis on guided discovery and higher number of opportunities for the practice of process skill is more likely to facilitate the development of process skills among children than the teaching style characterized by marked leanings towards teacher domination and did activeness, lower cognitive demand, no emphasis on innovation and lack of provision of opportunities for the practices of process skills.

Jacob, J. P. (2013) he investigated Effect of deficits in scientific skills on achievement in science of the learning disabled at the primary school level learning disabled and non-disable children shows a significant positive correlation indicating the relationship between science process skills and achievement in science.

2.5 Summary and Discussion of Related Literature a nd Researches

People of 21st century are now aware of the importance of science, and thus the science education. Many programs are carried out for teachers and learners to develop their science teaching and learning capability respectively, in continuation with this there are several researches going in science education. The main research areas are best practices for teaching science, curriculum development to cater need of 21st century, new evaluation schemes for testing scientific knowledge like( Kirch, S. A., 2009) Engaging young children with the tentative nature of science in which the study compares scientific practices in a research laboratory and a second grade classroom. (Johnston, J. S., 2009) Examining the skill of observation in young children, The paper draws attention to that fact that in recent years primary science education has been about the acquisition of conceptual knowledge rather than key skills, and that this balance may not be justified, (Barton, A. C., & Tan, E. 2009)Integrating everyday discourses and knowledge in science learning in this paper an experiment integrated students’ everyday discourses and knowledge into classroom scientific practice, thereby allowing for the creation of hybrid spaces, where students were able to meaningfully apply science learning to their everyday lives. (Chin, C.; Osborne, J. (2010). The relationship of scientific questioning and scientific argumentation, in this study, researchers investigated how student-generated questions could operate to advance scientific argumentation and understanding in a middle school classroom by illuminating prior knowledge, highlighting inconsistencies, and identifying and evaluating evidence, among other things. (Oliveira, A., 2010) Questioning strategies to deepen scientific thinking, This research shows that, through discourse analysis, teachers

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were able to reflect on and adopt questioning strategies that led to students’ higher-level thinking, longer and more sophisticated responses, and self-evaluation. (Kim, M.; Tan, A. L. 2011) Teacher concerns around practical work and inquiry-based science ,in this study, the authors sought to examine teachers’ views and understandings of science practical work, which in this instance refers to both inquiry-based activities and teacher-led manipulations of experiments and phenomena. (Sjaastad, J., 2012) Sources of inspiration for STEM decisions, Researchers asked 5,000 Norwegian college-level students of STEM about the sources of inspiration for their educational choices. The findings suggest that the most effective STEM role models are individuals who have a personal connection with the young person making education and career choices.

In addition to above there is vast research going on in the area of scientific literacy and scientific process skills. (Hollbruk, 2010) stated the aim of scientific education is to enhance scientific literacy. (Roth & Lee ,2004) stated to be a responsible citizen competencies in sciences are need to be developing in society. The definition of scientific literacy was developed by many authors according to their views like( Hurd, 1958, AAAS, 1989; NSTA, 1991; Miller, 1996; NRC, 1996; Bybee, 1997; DeBoer, 2000; Laugksch, 2000; Norris & Philips, 2003; OECD, 2007; Bybee, et al., 2009; Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2009; Acar et. al, 2010). (Shen, 1975; Shamos, 1995; ByBee, 1999) proposed types of levels of scientific literacy. Some researcher assessed the scientific literacy among students, student teachers, public like (Yates, B. L., 1998; OECD, 2000);Schwartz, 2006; Bacanak, A.; Gokdere, M., 2009; NAP, 2012).

To assess the scientific literacy (Brossard, D., 2001; Kelly, B., Paul, P., Rick, S., 2004; Carl, J. W., 2010; Cara, G., Peggy, B., Lutz, M., 2012) developed standard tools, they are of distinct types. To develop scientific literacy teaching methods are need to be used and to teach science new teaching techniques and strategies has to be implemented many researches like (Tania, C, Aroujo, J., 2000; Parkinson, J., Adendorff, R., 2004; Biernacka, B., Ebenezer, J., 2005; Nwagbo, C., 2006; Igboegwu, E. N., Egbutu, R. N. 2011; Jamie, S., Nikita, S. R., 2011; Gambler, J., Krontiris, L., 2013) developed new teaching techniques and strategies to enhance scientific literacy.

In the present study researcher used the scientific literacy levels proposed by (Bybee, 1999) the main reason behind it is the of scientific literacy were developed referring to school science programs and teaching .

To enhance scientific literacy, scientific process skills are equally important. (UNESCO ,1969-70; SAPA, 1980; Ilea, 1987) have proposed many scientific process skills to enhance scientific literacy. (Arnold, Bourdeau, V., 2009) developed science process skill inventory. (Sulivan, F. R., 2008; Burakfeyziog ,2009; Oztur, N., Ozden, T., 2010) investigated co-relation between scientific process skills and efficient lab use, science and technology lesson like robotics. (Rebecca, L. H., Kirk, A. S., 2007; Germann, Aram, 1996; Hamil, J. W., 1994; Bhargava, S. N. L., 1986;

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Sebastian, 1993) assessed process skills among student, student teachers and teachers. Researches like (Walkoz, Yeany, 1984; Khalwania, N. S., 1986; Song, J. and Black, P. J., 1991; Cain, M., 1992; Ahuja, 1995; Dawson, 2000; Remziye, Yeter, 2011; Ka, E., Guvan, E., Aydogdu, M., 2010; Floris, M, Nancy, N. G., 2013; Pai, B. D., 2007; Sharma, S., 1994) developed scientific process skills using different teaching methods, strategies, programs and techniques.

For present study researcher used scientific process skills proposed by (SAPA, 1980).

Looking towards research carried out in the area of science education, India is lagging behind. Very few people have contributed in this area, hence it a need to carry out some more research in this area of science education.

2.5.1 Contribution of Related Literature and Relate d Researches to Present Study

The contribution of related literature and related researches was used by the researcher in the present study is as follows :

1. Development of Problem, Objectives and Hypotheses

On the background of problems and objectives covered in previous studies, their limitations, the objectives of present study emerged. It is necessary to develop programme to enhance scientific literacy and science process skills among student teacher.

The problem and objectives as they defined are unique and identical in comparison of previous studies. This study has its value of originality

2. Selection of Variables

In the previous studies various variables are used like gender, teaching methods, scientific literacy level, scientific process skills. In the present same variables are used.

3. Research Methodology

The previous researches have adopted survey method as well as experimental method. Survey method was used to measure scientific literacy and scientific process skills among student, citizen, and teacher.

Experimental method was used find to effectiveness teaching methods and techniques. So that for present study researcher was used experimental method.

4. Sample Size

Here is much variation in size of sample from 25 to more than 1000. Most of the studies are survey researches. Therefore, they require sample in large size with demographic view and appropriate technique of selection. Here, the researcher in present study selected sample through specific testing. It is an experimental study. Therefore, the sample in small group is sizeable for study.

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5. Tools of Data Collection

Above review showed that so many tools are used for data collection. Like nature of science questioners, interviews, scientific process skills inventory. Scientific literacy test based on science concept.

For present study researcher used multiple choice questionnaires , science content achievement test and real life problem based test is most preferred technique as seem in previous studies. Standard tools were also used by researcher.

6. Experimental Designing

The previous researches have adopted various experimental designs to avoid impact of extraneous variables on experimentation. To remove the issues in calming the experiment as a quasi experiment design researcher has applied. The Pre-test – Post-test Non equivalent Group Design.

7. Development of Teaching Strategy

Above review showed that some research had been related to development teaching strategies for development scientific literacy. But objective and target group are very different from present study. Researcher adopted ADDIE model for development of teaching strategies.

8. Period of Training

Training period is diversified in previous studies. It is from minimum 7 days to 45 days not exceeding working three hours in a day. Time budgeting in the previous studies has supported present study for deciding time schedule

9. Data Analysis

Descriptive as well as inferential statistical techniques have been employed by researcher for testing validity. The similar techniques have been adopted in this study.

10. Conclusions

The conclusions of previous studies have provided a frame of reference to interpret and compare the outcomes of present study.

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Table No. 2.2

Use of Related Literature and Related Researches in Present Study

Steps of Research Related Researches and Literature

Applications to Present Study

1. Development of problem

SAPA (1980), AAAS (1990), Bybee (1999), Laugksch (2000), Biernacka, B., Ebenezer, J. (2005), Rebecca, L. H., Kirk, A. S. (2007), Soobard, R., Rannikmäe, M.(2011),

Definition of scientific Literacy, Scientific Literacy Levels, Scientific Process Skills, Levels of Scientific Literacy

2. Selection of Variables

Germann (1994), Hykle, J. A.(1994), Beaumont, Y. W., Kola, S. (2001), Bacanak, A. ,Gokdere, M.(2009)

Scientific Literacy, Gender, Scientific process skills

3. Research Methods

Pai, B. D. (2007), Vellaisamy, M. (2007), Aka, E., Guvane, W., Aydogdu, M. (2010), Udaykumar, P.(2013)

More emphasis is given on quantitative aspect with experimental study.

4. Sample Schwartz, Y. (2006), Vellaisamy, M. (2007), Bacanak, A., Gokdere, M.(2009), Soobard, R., Rannikmäe, M. (2011)

Selection through testing to Prepare equivalent group.

5. Tools of Data collocation

PISA (2000), Schwartz, Y. (2006), Bacanak, A., Gokdere, M. (2009), Carl, J. W.(2010)

Multiple choice questions, Answers with explanation, Questions related to social context.

6. Experimental Design

Nwagbo, C. (2006), Pai, B. D. (2007), Costu, B. (2007), Vellaisamy, M. (2007), Aka, E. , Guvane, W., Aydogdu, M.(2010)

The Pre-test and Post-test Equivalent Group Design has been adopted to control extraneous variables and to protect validity.

7. Teaching Strategy

Cain, M.(1992), Department for Education and Skills(2004), Nwagbo, C. (2006), Vellaisamy, M. (2007), Igboegwu, E. N., Egbutu, R. N. (2011)

Cooperative learning strategy, Demonstration Method ,Hands on activities, Multimedia Approach, using group talk and argument, using active questioning, improving the learning climate, using models and modeling techniques, teaching the science of contemporary issues

8. Period of Implementation

Pai, B. D. (2007), Udaykumar, P. (2013)

Selected the period for implementation of teaching strategy is 60 days.

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Steps of Research Related Researches and Literature

Applications to Present Study

9. Data Analysis Schwartz, Y. (2006), Pai, B. D. (2007), Soobard, R. , Rannikmäe, M.(2011)

Qualitative approach is used by researcher for data analysis,

10. Enrichment of material

Pai, B. D. (2007),Deshmukh, N., Deshmukh, M.(2007)

The selected content is not sufficient for carrying out the experiment, hence it is enriched by adding small hands on activity and more information about selected content.

Thus, in this second chapter researcher has presented the review has taken from related literature and researches with respect teaching strategy, scientific literacy and scientific process skills.

In the next chapter researcher has discussed plane and procedure of the study.

.