Chapter 9Chapter 9Motivation and Motivation and EmotionEmotion

Chapter 9 OverviewChapter 9 Overview

Explaining motivationExplaining motivation Social motivesSocial motives HungerHunger Sexual motivationSexual motivation EmotionEmotion

Explaining MotivationExplaining Motivation

Motivation Motivation is all the processes is all the processes that initiate, direct and that initiate, direct and sustain behaviorsustain behavior

Motive Motive is the need or desire is the need or desire that energizes and directs that energizes and directs behavior toward a goalbehavior toward a goal

How do the three components of How do the three components of motivation work together to motivation work together to influence behavior?influence behavior?

ActivationActivation– Taking the first steps toward a goalTaking the first steps toward a goal

PersistencePersistence– Continuing to work toward a goal Continuing to work toward a goal despite encountering obstaclesdespite encountering obstacles

IntensityIntensity– The energy and attention applied to The energy and attention applied to achieve a goalachieve a goal

What is the difference between What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?motivation?

Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation– Desire to perform an act because it Desire to perform an act because it is satisfying or pleasurable in and is satisfying or pleasurable in and of itselfof itself

e.g., A child reads a book because it is e.g., A child reads a book because it is funfun

Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivation– Desire to perform an act to gain an Desire to perform an act to gain an external reward or avoid an external reward or avoid an undesirable consequenceundesirable consequence

e.g., A child reads a book to avoid e.g., A child reads a book to avoid losing TV privilegeslosing TV privileges

How do drive-reduction and How do drive-reduction and arousal theory explain arousal theory explain motivation?motivation?

In many species, behavior is In many species, behavior is motivated by motivated by instinctsinstincts– Fixed behavior patterns Fixed behavior patterns characteristic of every member of a characteristic of every member of a speciesspecies

e.g., spiders spinning webs, birds e.g., spiders spinning webs, birds migratingmigrating

No true instincts motivate human No true instincts motivate human behaviorbehavior

But, biological forces underlie But, biological forces underlie some human behaviorssome human behaviors

Drive-reduction theoryDrive-reduction theory

The Yerkes-Dodson lawThe Yerkes-Dodson law

States that task States that task performance is performance is best when best when arousal level is arousal level is appropriate to appropriate to task difficultytask difficulty– Higher arousal Higher arousal for simple tasksfor simple tasks

– Moderate arousal Moderate arousal for moderate for moderate taskstasks

– Low arousal for Low arousal for difficult tasksdifficult tasks

Maslow’s hierarchy of needsMaslow’s hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow proposed that proposed that human needs are human needs are hierarchicalhierarchical

Humans are Humans are motivated by motivated by their lowest their lowest unmet needunmet need

When lower When lower needs are met, needs are met, the ultimate the ultimate goal is goal is self-self-actualizationactualization

According to Maslow, how do According to Maslow, how do individuals attain self-individuals attain self-actualization?actualization? Maslow studied people who Maslow studied people who exemplified self- actualizationexemplified self- actualization– e.g., Abraham Lincoln, Thomas e.g., Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Eleanor RooseveltRoosevelt

Self-actualizersSelf-actualizers– Perceive reality accuratelyPerceive reality accurately– Believe they have a mission to Believe they have a mission to accomplishaccomplish

– Devote their lives to some larger goodDevote their lives to some larger good– Frequently have Frequently have peak experiencespeak experiences

Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony with the universeharmony with the universe

Social MotivesSocial Motives

Motive (such as the needs Motive (such as the needs for affiliation and for affiliation and achievement) that is achievement) that is acquired through experience acquired through experience and interaction with othersand interaction with others

How do need for achievement How do need for achievement theory and goal orientation theory and goal orientation theory explain achievement theory explain achievement motivation?motivation? Henry Murray developed the Henry Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)– A series of pictures of ambiguous A series of pictures of ambiguous situationssituations

– Person taking the test is asked to Person taking the test is asked to create a story about each picturecreate a story about each picture

– The stories are presumed to reveal The stories are presumed to reveal the test taker’s needsthe test taker’s needs

According to Murray, one motive According to Murray, one motive revealed by the TAT is revealed by the TAT is need for need for achievement achievement (n Ach)(n Ach)– The need to accomplish something The need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellencestandard of excellence

How do need for achievement How do need for achievement theory and goal orientation theory and goal orientation theory explain achievement theory explain achievement motivation?motivation? Goal orientation theory Goal orientation theory proposes proposes that achievement motivation that achievement motivation varies according to which of varies according to which of four goal orientations one four goal orientations one adoptsadopts– Mastery approachMastery approach orientation orientation– Mastery avoidanceMastery avoidance orientation orientation– Performance avoidancePerformance avoidance orientation orientation– Performance approachPerformance approach orientation orientation

What kinds of conditions What kinds of conditions affect work motivation?affect work motivation?

Work motivationWork motivation is the is the conditions responsible for conditions responsible for arousal, direction, magnitude, arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort of and maintenance of effort of workersworkers

Two effective ways to increase Two effective ways to increase work motivationwork motivation– ReinforcementReinforcement– Goal settingGoal setting

What kinds of conditions What kinds of conditions affect work motivation?affect work motivation?

Research suggests that Research suggests that organizations can enhance organizations can enhance employees’ commitment to goals byemployees’ commitment to goals by– Having them participate in goal Having them participate in goal settingsetting

– Making goals specific, attractive, Making goals specific, attractive, difficult, and attainabledifficult, and attainable

– Providing feedback on performanceProviding feedback on performance– Rewarding employees for attaining Rewarding employees for attaining goalsgoals

HungerHunger

Primary drives Primary drives are unlearned are unlearned motives that serve to motives that serve to satisfy biological needs, satisfy biological needs, states of tension or arousal states of tension or arousal that arise from a biological that arise from a biological need and are unlearnedneed and are unlearned

How do internal and external How do internal and external cues influence eating cues influence eating behavior?behavior? External cues that stimulate External cues that stimulate eating includeeating include– Appetizing smell, taste, or Appetizing smell, taste, or appearance of foodappearance of food

– Being around others who are eatingBeing around others who are eating– Reaction to boredom, stress, or an Reaction to boredom, stress, or an unpleasant emotional stateunpleasant emotional state

External cues that inhibit eating External cues that inhibit eating includeinclude– Unappetizing smell, taste, or Unappetizing smell, taste, or appearance of foodappearance of food

– Acquired taste aversionsAcquired taste aversions– Reaction to stress or an unpleasant Reaction to stress or an unpleasant emotional stateemotional state

What are the proposed causes What are the proposed causes of eating disorders, and how of eating disorders, and how are these disorders treated?are these disorders treated? Anorexia nervosaAnorexia nervosa is an eating is an eating disorder characterized by disorder characterized by overwhelming, irrational fear of overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of compulsive dieting to the point of starvation, and excessive weight lossstarvation, and excessive weight loss

Causes of this disorder are not well Causes of this disorder are not well understoodunderstood

But risk factors include being overly worried But risk factors include being overly worried about physical appearance, feeling social about physical appearance, feeling social pressure to be thin, and obsessive-compulsive pressure to be thin, and obsessive-compulsive disorderdisorder

Treatment is difficultTreatment is difficult Psychotherapy, self-help groups, Psychotherapy, self-help groups, antidepressant medication, protein supplements antidepressant medication, protein supplements can helpcan help

What are the proposed causes What are the proposed causes of eating disorders, and how of eating disorders, and how are these disorders treated?are these disorders treated? BulemiaBulemia is an eating disorder is an eating disorder characterized by repeated and characterized by repeated and uncontrolled episodes of binge uncontrolled episodes of binge eatingeating

Causes not well understoodCauses not well understood– People with bulimia have high rates People with bulimia have high rates of obsessive-compulsive disorder and of obsessive-compulsive disorder and high rates of self-injurious behaviorhigh rates of self-injurious behavior

Treatment is difficultTreatment is difficult– Behavior modification, cognitive-Behavior modification, cognitive-behavioral therapy, antidepressant behavioral therapy, antidepressant medications are sometimes effectivemedications are sometimes effective

Sexual MotivationSexual Motivation

An important motivational An important motivational domain more openly discussed domain more openly discussed now than was true before now than was true before Kinsey’s (1948) landmark Kinsey’s (1948) landmark research findings became research findings became knownknown

How do sexual attitudes and How do sexual attitudes and behavior vary across cultures behavior vary across cultures and genders?and genders?

Frequency of sexual activity Frequency of sexual activity varies across culturesvaries across cultures– People on some countries report People on some countries report higher levels of sexual activityhigher levels of sexual activity

e.g., Greece, United Statese.g., Greece, United States

– In other countries, levels of sexual In other countries, levels of sexual activity are loweractivity are lower

e.g., Japane.g., Japan

In all cultures, men and women In all cultures, men and women differ in attitudes about sexdiffer in attitudes about sex

How do sexual attitudes and How do sexual attitudes and behavior vary across cultures behavior vary across cultures and genders?and genders?

Survey research suggests that, Survey research suggests that, compared to women, mencompared to women, men– Think about sex more oftenThink about sex more often– Are more likely to be interested in Are more likely to be interested in purely physical sex with no purely physical sex with no emotional involvementemotional involvement

– Are more concerned about sexual Are more concerned about sexual fidelity in a partner, while women fidelity in a partner, while women are more concerned about emotional are more concerned about emotional fidelityfidelity

How do sexual attitudes and How do sexual attitudes and behavior vary across cultures behavior vary across cultures and genders?and genders?

Evolutionary psychologists Evolutionary psychologists explain differences between men explain differences between men and women in terms of and women in terms of parental parental investmentinvestment– Women make large investment in Women make large investment in offspringoffspring

As a result, are selective in choosing As a result, are selective in choosing mates and value emotional fidelity in a mates and value emotional fidelity in a matemate

– Men make smaller investmentMen make smaller investment So seek more partners and partners with So seek more partners and partners with high reproductive capacityhigh reproductive capacity

EmotionEmotion

An identifiable feeling An identifiable feeling state involving state involving physiological arousal, a physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the cognitive appraisal of the situation or stimulus situation or stimulus causing that internal body causing that internal body state, and an outward state, and an outward behavior expressing the behavior expressing the statestate

What are the various theories What are the various theories

thatthat have been proposed to have been proposed to explain emotion?explain emotion?

What are the various theories What are the various theories

thatthat have been proposed to have been proposed to explain emotion?explain emotion? The The Cannon Bard theory Cannon Bard theory suggests that suggests that emotion-provoking stimulus is emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, which is responsible cerebral cortex, which is responsible for conscious experience of the emotion, for conscious experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, and to the sympathetic nervous system, which causes physiological arousalwhich causes physiological arousal

So, emotions are experienced So, emotions are experienced psychologically and physiologically at psychologically and physiologically at the same timethe same time

What are the various theories What are the various theories

thatthat have been proposed to have been proposed to explain emotion?explain emotion? The The Schachter-Singer two-factor Schachter-Singer two-factor

theory theory suggests that two suggests that two things must happen for a person things must happen for a person to feel an emotionto feel an emotion– There must be physiological There must be physiological

arousalarousal– There must be a cognitive There must be a cognitive

interpretation of the arousal, so interpretation of the arousal, so the person can label it as a the person can label it as a specific emotionspecific emotion

What are the various theories What are the various theories

thatthat have been proposed to have been proposed to explain emotion?explain emotion? The The Lazarus theory Lazarus theory proposes that proposes that a cognitive appraisal is the a cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional first step in an emotional response, and that all other response, and that all other aspects of an emotion, including aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on physiological arousal, depend on itit

Which aspects of emotion are Which aspects of emotion are universal, and which vary universal, and which vary across cultures?across cultures? Basic emotionsBasic emotions are unlearned and are unlearned and universaluniversal– They are found in all culturesThey are found in all cultures– Emerge in children according to a Emerge in children according to a predictable developmental timetablepredictable developmental timetable

Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, joy Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, joy or happiness, and sadness or distress or happiness, and sadness or distress are usually considered the basic are usually considered the basic emotionsemotions– They are reflected in the same facial They are reflected in the same facial expressions in all culturesexpressions in all cultures

– But, cultures have very different But, cultures have very different display display rulesrules

Rules that dictate how emotions should be Rules that dictate how emotions should be expressed and when and where their expression expressed and when and where their expression is appropriateis appropriate

Which aspects of emotion are Which aspects of emotion are universal, and which vary universal, and which vary across cultures?across cultures?

Facial-feedback hypothesis Facial-feedback hypothesis is the is the idea that muscular movements idea that muscular movements involved in certain facial involved in certain facial expressions produce the expressions produce the corresponding emotionscorresponding emotions

Research supports this hypothesisResearch supports this hypothesis– e.g., if you are angry and you adopt e.g., if you are angry and you adopt an angry expression, you will feel an angry expression, you will feel even angriereven angrier

In what ways do males and In what ways do males and females differ with regard to females differ with regard to emotions?emotions? When betrayedWhen betrayed

– Men are more likely to feel angryMen are more likely to feel angry– Women are more likely to feel sad or Women are more likely to feel sad or disappointeddisappointed

Men are more likely to express Men are more likely to express anger in publicanger in public– In private, men and women do not In private, men and women do not differdiffer

Research suggests that women Research suggests that women experience more intense and experience more intense and frequent emotions than menfrequent emotions than men– With the exception of angerWith the exception of anger