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Constructing aninstrument for data

collection

Selecting a method for datacollection

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Secondary Sources Primary Sources

Documents

Govt Publications

Earlier research

Census

Personal Records

Client Histories

Service Records

Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

Participant

Non-

Participant

Structured

Unstructured

Mailed

Questionnaire

Collective

Questionnaire

Methods of data collection

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Methods of data collection

Primary Sources information must be collected. Provide first hand information

Egs. finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards health services

ascertaining the health needs of a community

evaluating a social program determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization

ascertaining the quality of services provided by a worker

Secondary Sources - information required is already available and need onlybe extracted.

Provide second-hand data

Egs.

Use of census data to obtain information on the age-sex structure of apopulation

the use of hospital records to find out the morbidity and mortality patterns ofa community

the use of an organisations records to ascertain its activities

the collection of data from sources such as articles, journals, magazines,

books and periodicals to obtain historical and other types of information

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Primary Sources

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Collecting data using primarysources

1) Observation

2) Interviewing

3) Questionnaire

Choice depends upon

The purpose of the study

The skills of the researcher

The resources available

Socioeconomic-demographic characteristicsof the study population It is helpful to know the study populations interest in,

and attitude towards, participation in the study.

The way the purpose and relevance of the study isexplained to potential respondents

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Observation

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Observation

A purposeful, systematic and selective way of

watching and listening to an interaction or

phenomenon as it takes place.

Appropriate when

More interested in the behaviour than the

perceptions of individuals

when the subjects are so involved in theinteraction that they are unable to provide

objective information about it

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Types of observation

Participant observation

When researcher participates in the activities of

the group being observed, in the same manner as

its members, with or without their knowledge thatthey are being observed

Non-participant observation

When researcher do not get involved in theactivities of the group

Remains a passive observer

Watching and listening to its activities and

drawing conclusions from this

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Problems with using observationas a method of data collection

Hawthorne Effect

When individuals or groups become aware that they are

being observed, they may change their behaviour.

It may increase or decrease their productivity Use of observation may introduce distortion

Observer Bias no easy way to verify theobservations and inferences drawn

Interpretations drawn may vary from observer toobserver

Incomplete Observation/Recording varies with themethod of recording.

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Situations in which observationscan be made

Natural

Observing a group in its natural operation rather

than intervening in its activities

Controlled

Introducing a stimulus to the group for it to react

to and observing the reaction.

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Ways of recording ofobservation

A. Narrative

B. Scales

C. Categorical recordingD. Recording on mechanical devices

Choice depends upon

The purpose of the observation The complexity of the interaction

The type of population being observed

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A. Narrative

The researcher records a description of the interaction inhis/her own words.

Makes brief notes while observing the interaction and soonafter the observation makes detailed notes in narrative

form. Some researchers may interpret the interaction and draw

conclusions from it

Advantage: provides a deeper insight into the interaction

Disadvantage:

Observer may be biased in his/her observation Might forget to record an important piece of interaction

Incomplete recording and/or observation

With different observers, the comparability of narrativerecording can be a problem

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B. Scales

A scale is developed to rate various aspects

of the interaction or phenomenon.

Scale may be one-, two- or three-directional,

depending upon the purpose

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A study of the nature ofinteraction in a group

Aspects of interaction

Participation

Rapport

Confidence

Aggressiveness

Withdrawnness

Friendliness

Aloofness

Positive Neutral Negative

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

A Three-directional rating scale

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Problems with using a scale torecord observations

It does not provide in-depth information about theinteraction

Error of central tendency Unless the observer isextremely confident of his ability to assess, the observer

may tend to avoid the extreme positions on the scale,using mostly the central part

Elevation effect some observers may prefer certainsections of the scale

Halo effect the way an observer rates an individual onone aspect of the interaction influences the way she/herates that individual on another aspect of the interaction

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C. Categorical Recording

Recording observations using categories

Type and number of categories depend uponthe type of interaction and the observers

choice E.g.

Passive/Active (two categories)

Introvert/Extrovert (two categories) Always/Sometimes/Never (three categories)

Strongly agree/Agree/Uncertain/Disagree/StronglyDisagree (five categories)

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D. Recording on mechanicaldevices

Observation recorded on a videotape andthen analysed

Advantages

the observer can see it a number of times beforedrawing any conclusions

Can invite other professionals to view the tape inorder at more objective conclusions

Disadvantage - some people may feeluncomfortable or may behave differentlybefore a camera.

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The Interview

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Interview

Any person-to-person interaction between two or

more individuals with a specific purpose in mind iscalled an interview.

Unstructured interviews

-Flexible interview structure

-Flexible interview contents

-Flexibility in interview

questions

Interviewing

Structured interviewsInterviews at different levelsof flexibility and specificity

-Rigid interview structure

-Rigid interview contents

-Rigidity in interview

questions and their wording

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Types of Unstructured Interviews

NarrativesResearcher seeks to hear the personal experience of a person with an

incident or happening in his/her life.

-No predetermined contents.

-Powerful for sensitive issues and have therapeutic impact.

Oral histories

Used for learning about a historical event or episode that took place in

the past or for gaining information about a culture, custom or story thathas been passed from generation to generation.

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Unstructured Vs StructuredInterviews Information richness

Comparability of questions and responses

Uniformity of information

Challenge of interviewing

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The questionnaire

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Research Instruments

Interview Schedule

It is a written list of questions, open-ended or close-ended, prepared

for use of an interviewer in a person-to-person interaction (face-to-

face, by telephone or by other electronic media).

The questionnaire

It is a written list of questions ,

the answers to which are

recorded by respondents.

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Considerations inFormulating Questionnaire

Questions should be clear and easy to understand Layout should be pleasant

Sequential

Interactive

Prefacing sensitive questions by an interactive

statement

A study of occupational mobility among immigrants

Before asking questions about family background, the followinginteractive statement was inserted in the questionnaire:

Now, we would like to ask some questions about your family. Your familycircumstances can effect your choice of occupation.We assure you of the complete

anonymity of your responses.

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Interview Schedule Or aQuestionnaire?

The nature of the investigation

The geographical distribution of the study population

The type of study population

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Ways of Administering aQuestionnaire

Mailed QuestionnaireSending the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail

-Must be accompanied by a covering letter

Introduce you and institution you are representing

Describe in two or three sentences the main objectives of the study Explain the relevance of the study

Convey any general instructions

Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary

Assure respondents of the anonymity of the information provided by them

Provide a contact number in case they have any questions Give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its return

Thank them for their participation in the study

-Send a prepaid, self-addressed envelope

-Problem of low response rate

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Ways of Administering aQuestionnaire

Collective administration

Collect information from captive audience

-Can explain the purpose, relevance and importance of study

-Clarify the questions of respondents

-Quick, high response rate and save money on postage

Administration in a public place

-Time consuming

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Questionnaire Vs Interview

InterviewAdvantages

Apt for complex situations

In-depth information

Information can besupplemented

Wider application

DisadvantagesTime consuming andcomplex

Quality of data dependsupon quality of interviewer

Researcher and interviewerbias

QuestionnaireAdvantages

Less expensive

Offers greater anonymity

Disadvantages Limited application

Low response rate

Lack of of opportunity to clarifyissues

Non allowance of spontaneous

responses Conditioning effect

Possibility of consulting others

Response cannot besupplemented with otherinformation

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Design Data Collection Forms

What observation form or questionnaire will be best

suit the needs of the project?

Anonymous? Confidential?

Structured vs. open-ended

Quantitative or qualitative?

What is the layout going to look like?

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Forms of Question

Open-ended question

Respondent writes down the answers in his/her own words

whereas in the case of an interview schedule the investigator

records the answers in a summary describing a respondentsanswer.

Closed-ended question

Possible answers are set out in questionnaire or an interview

schedule and the respondent or investigator ticks the categorythat best describes the respondents answer.

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A.Please indicate your age by placing a tick in the appropriate category

Under 15

15-19 years

20-24 years

B.What is your average annual income? Under 10000

10000-19999

20000-29999

30000-39999

40000+OR How would you categorize your average annual income?

Above average

Average

Below average

C.What in your opinion , are the qualities of a good administrator?

Able to make decisions

Fast decision maker

Able to listen

Impartial

Other,please specify

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A.What is your current age?________years

B.What is your average annual income?Rs__________

C.What in your opinion, are the qualities of a good administrator?

1________________

2________________

3________________

4________________

5________________

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Open-ended Vs Closed-endedQuestions

Open-ended Questions

Provide in-depth information

Freely expression of views

Useful while seekingopinions,attitudes and

perceptions

Any category can be developed

at the time of analysis

Eliminating possibility ofinvestigator bias

Analysis difficult

Information can be lost

Closed ended Questions

Information lacks depth

Response pattern can condition

thinking of respondents

Useful for eliciting factual

information

Developed categories cannot be

changed

Ready made list to answers withoutthinking

Analysis easy

Ensure information is obtained

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Considerations in formulatingquestions

Common types of faults

Technical jargon

Vague and ambiguous terminology

Double barelled questions

Leading questions

Context effects

Hidden assumptions Social desirability

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Technical Jargon

Is anyone in your family dipsomaniac?

Simple and every day language must be used

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Vague and ambiguousterminology

How often do you clean your teeth?

Frequently

often

infrequently never

what does frequently mean?

Give quantifiers to ensure all respondentsunderstand the same thing by the responsecategories

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Double barreled questions

How often and how much time do you spend oneach visit?

avoid questions that involve multiple

premises

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Leading questions andcontext effects

Would you agree that the governments policies onhealth are unfair?

Smoking is bad,isnt it?

Item wordings should not contain value judgements

How many pints of beer did you drink last night?

Think how the context of the study would affect the

response, say in a survey of young peoples life styles

survey of health behaviour and heart disease

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Hidden assumptions, socialdesirability

When did you last borrow a video tape?

Avoid hidden assumptions - what are these?

Do you ever give to charity?

May lead to a positive response as otherwise

something negative about the respondent is

being conveyed

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Validity of Research Instrument

Clearly define and individually list all the specificobjectives,research question or hypothesis,ifany, to be tested.

For each objective, research question orhypothesis, list all the associated questions thatyou want to answer through your study

List the information required to answer theresearch questions

Formulate question(s) to obtain this information

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Objectives/hypothesis

Step I

ResearchQuestions

Step II

Informationrequired

Step III

Questions

Step IV

To find out the

understanding of

concept community

responsiveness

among health

administrators,

planners, serviceproviders and

consumers of health

services

What iscommunity

responsiven

ess?

What are the

differences inthe perception

of community

responsiveness

among health

administrators,

planners,

service

providers and

consumers of

health services

Perception of

community

responsiveness

Occupational

status

Age,gender,education

1.1When you use the termcommunityresponsiveness,what do youmean by that?

1.2.What in your opinion is thedifference between communitydevelopment and community

responsiveness?2.What would you categoriseyour job as?

Health administrator

Service provider

Health consumer

3.1 How old are you?___

3.2Are you___male___female

3.3What is the highest level ofeducational achievement youhave attained?

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Secondary Sources

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Secondary Sources

Government or semi-government publicationsCensus, vital statistics registration, labour force surveys, health

reports, economic forecasts and demographic information

Mass media

Newspapers, magazines

Earlier research

Personal records

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On-line Information Sources

Now everyone has direct access to theworlds books and journals

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Now everyone can create their own documents

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Problems With SecondarySources

Validity and reliability

Personal bias

Availability of data

Format

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Keep In Mind That

No study is perfect

All data is dirty in some way or another;

research is what you do with that dirty data

Measurement involves making choices

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Getting Started

At some point you will need to leave the

comfort zone of reading and literature

gathering and

Just get out and do it!