Chapter 8Chapter 8Training and DevelopmentTraining and Development

1. Training vs. Development.1. Training vs. Development.

2. Importance of Training.2. Importance of Training.

3. Types of Training.3. Types of Training.

4. Training Process Model.4. Training Process Model.

5. Learning Principles.5. Learning Principles.

6. Training Methods.6. Training Methods.

1. Difference Between Training 1. Difference Between Training

TrainingTraining focuses on focuses on specificspecific job job knowledge and skill knowledge and skill that is to be applied in that is to be applied in the the short runshort run..

DevelopmentDevelopment focuses on focuses on broadbroad knowledge and knowledge and insights that may be insights that may be required for required for adaptationadaptation to environmental to environmental demands in the future.demands in the future.

1. Training vs. Development (Figure 8.1)

1. Respond to 1. Respond to technologytechnology changes affecting changes affecting job requirements.job requirements.

2. Respond to organizational 2. Respond to organizational restructuringrestructuring..

3. Adapt to increased 3. Adapt to increased diversitydiversity of the of the workforce.workforce.

4. Support 4. Support careercareer development. development.

5. Fulfill employee need for 5. Fulfill employee need for growthgrowth..

2. Importance of Training

Examples of Training InvestmentsExamples of Training Investments

Industry and government in the United States spend Industry and government in the United States spend approximately $90 billion each year on employee training and approximately $90 billion each year on employee training and education.education.

Average U. S. company spends about 1.4% of budget on Average U. S. company spends about 1.4% of budget on training compared to 5% for German companies and 6% for training compared to 5% for German companies and 6% for Japanese companies.Japanese companies.

Study of major automobile manufactures found U. S Study of major automobile manufactures found U. S automakers spend about 40 hours training new employees automakers spend about 40 hours training new employees compared to 300 hours for Japanese and German automakers.compared to 300 hours for Japanese and German automakers.

In early 1980s, Motorola’s CEO required all divisions to spend In early 1980s, Motorola’s CEO required all divisions to spend at least 2% of budget on at least 2% of budget on trainingtraining. Over next 7 years, profits . Over next 7 years, profits increased 47% and it was estimated that each $1.00 in training increased 47% and it was estimated that each $1.00 in training yielded $30.00 in return.yielded $30.00 in return.

3. Types of Training3. Types of Training

1. Skills Training.1. Skills Training.

2. Retraining.2. Retraining.

3. Cross-3. Cross-Functional. Functional.

4. Team Training.4. Team Training.

5. Creativity 5. Creativity Training.Training.

6. Literacy Training.6. Literacy Training.

7. Diversity 7. Diversity Training.Training.

8. Customer 8. Customer Service.Service.

3. Types of Training (pp. 275-282)

1. 1. SKILLS TRAININGSKILLS TRAINING

Focus on job knowledge Focus on job knowledge and skill for:and skill for:

Instructing new hires.Instructing new hires. Overcoming performance Overcoming performance

deficits of the workforce.deficits of the workforce.

2. 2. RetrainingRetraining

Maintaining worker knowledge and Maintaining worker knowledge and skill as skill as job requirements changejob requirements change due due to:to:

Technological innovationTechnological innovation Organizational restructuringOrganizational restructuring

3. 3. Cross-Functional TrainingCross-Functional Training

Training employees to perform a Training employees to perform a wider wider variety of tasksvariety of tasks in order to in order to gain:gain:

Flexibility in work scheduling.Flexibility in work scheduling. Improved coordination.Improved coordination.

4. 4. Team TrainingTeam Training

Training self-directed teams with Training self-directed teams with regard to:regard to:

Management skills.Management skills. Coordination skills.Coordination skills. Cross-functional skills.Cross-functional skills.

5. 5. Creativity TrainingCreativity Training

Using innovative learning Using innovative learning techniques to enhance techniques to enhance employee ability to spawn employee ability to spawn new ideas and new new ideas and new approaches.approaches.

Figure 8.8Figure 8.8Creativity Training MethodsCreativity Training Methods

Analogies and metaphorsAnalogies and metaphors – Using comparisons and – Using comparisons and finding similarities.finding similarities.

Free AssociationFree Association – Freely thinking of words linked to – Freely thinking of words linked to specific problems can give insight.specific problems can give insight.

Personal AnalogyPersonal Analogy – Placing oneself as the source of – Placing oneself as the source of a problem to gain insight.a problem to gain insight.

Mind MappingMind Mapping – Generating issues and drawing – Generating issues and drawing lines to identify relationships among the issues.lines to identify relationships among the issues.

6. 6. Literacy TrainingLiteracy Training

Improving Improving basic skillsbasic skills of the of the workforce such as workforce such as mathematics, reading, writing, mathematics, reading, writing, and effective employee and effective employee behaviors such as punctuality, behaviors such as punctuality, responsibility, cooperation,etc. responsibility, cooperation,etc.

7. 7. Diversity TrainingDiversity Training

Instituting a variety of programs Instituting a variety of programs to instill awareness, tolerance, to instill awareness, tolerance, respect, and acceptance of respect, and acceptance of persons of different race, persons of different race, gender, etc. and different gender, etc. and different backgrounds.backgrounds.

8. 8. Customer Service TrainingCustomer Service Training

Training to improve Training to improve communication, better communication, better response to customer response to customer needs, and ways to needs, and ways to enhance customer enhance customer satisfaction.satisfaction.

I. Needs Assessment

II. Developing &Conducting

Training

III. EvaluatingTraining

4. Training Process Model

I. Needs AssessmentI. Needs Assessment

1. Organizational Level1. Organizational Level

2. Job Level2. Job Level

3. Individual Level3. Individual Level

1. Organizational Level1. Organizational Level

Sales and operating plans. Sales and operating plans.

Productivity measures.Productivity measures. Technology change.Technology change.

Organizational restructuring.Organizational restructuring. Change in workforce.Change in workforce.

2. Job Level2. Job Level

Job and task analysis.Job and task analysis. Identify KSAs.Identify KSAs.

Review procedural and Review procedural and technical manuals.technical manuals.

Design Training Program

3. Individual Level3. Individual LevelDetermine who needs training Determine who needs training

and what kind.and what kind.

Tests.Tests. Prior training and Prior training and

experience.experience. Performance review.Performance review. Career assessment.Career assessment.

II. Developing and Conducting II. Developing and Conducting TrainingTraining

1. 1. Determine location and who will conduct the Determine location and who will conduct the trainingtraining..

o Onsite facilities vs. offsite.Onsite facilities vs. offsite.o Inside training staff vs. outside vendors.Inside training staff vs. outside vendors.

2. 2. Develop training curriculaDevelop training curricula..Based on job/task analysis and individual needs.Based on job/task analysis and individual needs.

3. 3. Select training methodsSelect training methods..o Considering learning principles.Considering learning principles.

o Consider appropriateness and cost.Consider appropriateness and cost.

III. Evaluating Training III. Evaluating Training EffectivenessEffectiveness

1. Four levels of training effectiveness.1. Four levels of training effectiveness.2. Four evaluation designs.2. Four evaluation designs.

3. ROI – Return On Investment3. ROI – Return On Investment (See Figures 8.11 and 8.12).(See Figures 8.11 and 8.12).

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation Evaluation

According to this model, evaluation should always begin According to this model, evaluation should always begin with level one, and then, as time and budget allows, with level one, and then, as time and budget allows, should move sequentially through levels two, three, should move sequentially through levels two, three, and four. Information from each prior level serves as and four. Information from each prior level serves as a base for the next level's evaluation. Thus, each a base for the next level's evaluation. Thus, each successive level represents a more precise measure successive level represents a more precise measure of the effectiveness of the training program, but at of the effectiveness of the training program, but at the same time requires a more rigorous and time-the same time requires a more rigorous and time-consuming analysis.consuming analysis.

11

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of EvaluationKirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation

. Four levels of training effectiveness. Four levels of training effectiveness..a.a. Level 1 Evaluation -Level 1 Evaluation - ReactionsReactions (measures how participants in a training (measures how participants in a training

program react to it. It attempts to answer questions regarding the program react to it. It attempts to answer questions regarding the participants' perceptions - Did they like it? Was the material relevant to their participants' perceptions - Did they like it? Was the material relevant to their work? )work? )

b.b. Level 2 Evaluation - Level 2 Evaluation - LearningLearning (assess the amount of learning that has (assess the amount of learning that has occurred due to a training program, level two evaluations often use tests occurred due to a training program, level two evaluations often use tests conducted before training (pretest) and after training (post test) )conducted before training (pretest) and after training (post test) )

c.c. Level 3 Evaluation – Level 3 Evaluation – TransferTransfer (measures the transfer that has occurred in (measures the transfer that has occurred in learners' behavior due to the training program. Evaluating at this level learners' behavior due to the training program. Evaluating at this level attempts to answer the question : Are the newly acquired skills, knowledge, attempts to answer the question : Are the newly acquired skills, knowledge, or attitude are used in the everyday environment of the learner? )or attitude are used in the everyday environment of the learner? )

d.d. Level 4 Evaluation- Level 4 Evaluation- ResultsResults (measures the success of the program in (measures the success of the program in terms of business results. Such as increased production, improved quality, terms of business results. Such as increased production, improved quality, decreased costs, reduced frequency of accidents, increased sales, and decreased costs, reduced frequency of accidents, increased sales, and even higher profits or return on investment.)even higher profits or return on investment.)

Types of Evaluation DesignsTypes of Evaluation Designs

Train Measure

Post Test Only: Cannot tell if there is a change in knowledge or skill.

Measure Train Measure

Pre-test with Post-test: Detects a change, but cannot tell if training was responsible.

Types of Evaluation DesignsTypes of Evaluation Designs

Measure2

Measure1

Multiple Baseline Design: Compares trend in performance Before and After training. A significant change in the performance trend after the training

indicates the possibility of a training effect.

Measure TrainMeasureMeasure

3

Measure4

Measure5

Measure6

Types of Evaluation DesignsTypes of Evaluation Designs

Measure

Scientific Method: Training Group and Control Group.Compare performance of Training Group and Control

Group after training. If Training Group has higher performance, it can be attributed to a training effect.

Train Measure

MeasureNo

TrainMeasure

Readiness Practice Feedback

5. Learning Principles5. Learning Principles

Transfer

I. ReadinessI. Readiness

1. Assess trainee 1. Assess trainee capabilitycapability. .

2. Assess 2. Assess interestinterest and and perceived perceived relevancerelevance..

3. Enhance trainee 3. Enhance trainee motivationmotivation..

1. Assess trainee capability – i.e., ability 1. Assess trainee capability – i.e., ability and current level of knowledge and skill and current level of knowledge and skill – in order to insure success.– in order to insure success.

Tests.Tests. Work sampling.Work sampling. Performance appraisals.Performance appraisals.

2. Assess trainee interest and 2. Assess trainee interest and perceived relevance of training.perceived relevance of training.

Employee surveys.Employee surveys. Career development Career development

programs.programs. Performance appraisals.Performance appraisals.

3. Insure motivation to learn through control 3. Insure motivation to learn through control of of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory elements. elements.

Effort = E Effort = E × I × V× I × V

E-E-ExpectancyExpectancy is the belief that is the belief that effort will effort will lead to successlead to success (i.e., learning). (i.e., learning).

I-I-InstrumentalityInstrumentality is the belief that is the belief that success success (i.e., learning) will lead to rewards(i.e., learning) will lead to rewards..

V-V-ValenceValence is the value placed on rewards is the value placed on rewards by the individual.by the individual.

Increasing ExpectancyIncreasing Expectancy Match training design to trainee Match training design to trainee

capability.capability.

Enhance self-efficacy – role Enhance self-efficacy – role modeling, encouragement, inactive modeling, encouragement, inactive mastery, etc.mastery, etc.

Increasing InstrumentalityIncreasing Instrumentality Indicate the link between training Indicate the link between training

and (a) job success and (b) rewards and (a) job success and (b) rewards -security, salary, promotions, etc.-security, salary, promotions, etc.

Increasing ValenceIncreasing Valence

Valence (value of rewards) is largely Valence (value of rewards) is largely an an individualindividual matter based on one’s matter based on one’s personality and past experiences.personality and past experiences.

However, some studies have However, some studies have indicated that over the long-run, indicated that over the long-run, employees may come to value employees may come to value rewards that are consistently rewards that are consistently provided by the employer.provided by the employer.Bonuses, Promotions, Peer Relations, etc.

II. Conditions of PracticeII. Conditions of Practice

1. Meaningfulness.1. Meaningfulness.

2. Active vs. Passive.2. Active vs. Passive.

3. Individual Differences.3. Individual Differences.

1. Meaningfulness1. Meaningfulness

Refers to the characteristics of Refers to the characteristics of instructional concepts and instructional concepts and tasks as being (a) tasks as being (a) comprehendible and (b) comprehendible and (b) relevant to one’s past relevant to one’s past experiences (i.e., familiarity).experiences (i.e., familiarity).

Increasing MeaningfulnessIncreasing Meaningfulness

1. 1. Present conceptsPresent concepts by using examples and by using examples and illustrations that are related to the end use and illustrations that are related to the end use and trainee past experiences. Use trainee past experiences. Use multiple methodsmultiple methods to enhance trainee attention. to enhance trainee attention.

2. 2. Parts vs. WholeParts vs. Whole - Subdividing - Subdividing complexcomplex concepts concepts and tasks into components and treating and tasks into components and treating interrelatedinterrelated concepts and tasks as a whole. concepts and tasks as a whole.

3. 3. Distributed vs. MassedDistributed vs. Massed - The more complex and - The more complex and extensive the learning task, the more time and extensive the learning task, the more time and repetition that will be needed.repetition that will be needed.

2. Active vs.Passive2. Active vs.Passive Allowing trainees to progress from Allowing trainees to progress from covertcovert

responses to concepts and tasks (i.e., responses to concepts and tasks (i.e., mental imaging) to mental imaging) to overtovert responses (i.e., responses (i.e., active practice) allows one to develop the active practice) allows one to develop the proprioceptive proprioceptive cues necessary to react cues necessary to react spontaneously to real life events.spontaneously to real life events.

Active practice is particularly important for Active practice is particularly important for physical tasks and interpersonal physical tasks and interpersonal communication.communication.

3. Individual Differences3. Individual DifferencesStudies of learning indicate that different Studies of learning indicate that different

individuals have different “learning individuals have different “learning curves” – i.e., advance at different curves” – i.e., advance at different speeds and use different learning styles.speeds and use different learning styles.

ImplicationsImplications of individuals differences to of individuals differences to training:training:

Use a variety of training methods.Use a variety of training methods. Provide feedback and encouragement at Provide feedback and encouragement at

appropriate times.appropriate times.

III. FeedbackIII. Feedback

1. Information vs. 1. Information vs. Reinforcement.Reinforcement.

2. Continuous vs. Variable.2. Continuous vs. Variable.

3. External vs. Learner 3. External vs. Learner ControlledControlled. .

1. Information vs. 1. Information vs. ReinforcementReinforcement

InformationInformation – Refers to critique of – Refers to critique of learning performance, such as test learning performance, such as test results, observations of performance, results, observations of performance, coaching, etc.coaching, etc.

ReinforcementReinforcement – Refers to rewards, – Refers to rewards, punishment, or negative reinforcement. punishment, or negative reinforcement. (Such as praise, responsibility, salary (Such as praise, responsibility, salary increase, job security, promotion, etc.)increase, job security, promotion, etc.)

2. Continuous vs. Variable2. Continuous vs. Variable

ContinuousContinuous – It is important to provide – It is important to provide relatively continuous feedback early in relatively continuous feedback early in learning, to increase self-efficacy and learning, to increase self-efficacy and motivation.motivation.

VariableVariable – It is best to provide – It is best to provide intermittent feedback as learners intermittent feedback as learners master concepts and tasksmaster concepts and tasks..(Feedback (Feedback begins to be internally generated).begins to be internally generated).

3. External vs. Learner 3. External vs. Learner ControlledControlled

ExternalExternal – Feedback provided by – Feedback provided by instructors or supervisors - is important instructors or supervisors - is important in in early stagesearly stages of the learning process. of the learning process.

Learner ControlledLearner Controlled – Feedback – Feedback resulting from active practice (I.e. task resulting from active practice (I.e. task performance) such as computer-based performance) such as computer-based instruction, simulators, or on-the-job.instruction, simulators, or on-the-job.

IV. TransferIV. TransferTransfer refers to the trainee’s Transfer refers to the trainee’s

applicationapplication of knowledge and skills of knowledge and skills gained in training on the gained in training on the jobjob. It is . It is affected by:affected by:

Relevance and effectiveness of the Relevance and effectiveness of the training – readiness, practice, and training – readiness, practice, and feedback principles.feedback principles.

Follow-up instruction and support.Follow-up instruction and support. Reinforcement to use new knowledge and Reinforcement to use new knowledge and

skills.skills.

6. Training Methods6. Training Methods

Classroom Video

On-the-Job

Computer AssistedInstruction

Simulation

CAI with Video

1. 1. Classroom InstructionClassroom Instruction

Efficient dissemination Efficient dissemination of large volume of of large volume of information.information.

Effective in explaining Effective in explaining concepts, theories, and concepts, theories, and principles.principles.

Provides opportunity for Provides opportunity for discussion.discussion.

Learner does not control Learner does not control pace or contentpace or content

Does not consider Does not consider individual differences.individual differences.

Limited practice.Limited practice. Limited feedback.Limited feedback. Limited transfer to job.Limited transfer to job.

PROS CONS

2. 2. Video and FilmVideo and Film

Provides realism.Provides realism. Adds interest.Adds interest. Allows scheduling Allows scheduling

flexibility.flexibility. Allows exposure to Allows exposure to

hazardous events.hazardous events. Allows distribution to Allows distribution to

multiple sites.multiple sites.

Does not consider Does not consider individual differences.individual differences.

Limited practice.Limited practice. Limited feedback.Limited feedback. Limited transfer to job.Limited transfer to job.

PROS CONS

3. 3. Computer Assisted InstructionComputer Assisted Instruction

Efficient instruction.Efficient instruction. Considers individual Considers individual

differences.differences. Allows scheduling Allows scheduling

flexibility.flexibility. Allows active practice Allows active practice

for some tasks.for some tasks. Allows learner control.Allows learner control. Provides immediate Provides immediate

feedback to tasks.feedback to tasks.

Limited in presenting Limited in presenting theories and principles.theories and principles.

Limited discussion.Limited discussion. Transfer depends on Transfer depends on

particular job. (Good for particular job. (Good for computer work.)computer work.)

High development cost High development cost (40-60 hours per hour of (40-60 hours per hour of instruction at $100-$300 instruction at $100-$300 per hour.)per hour.)

PROS CONS

4. 4. Computer Assisted InstructionComputer Assisted Instruction with Videowith Video

Same as basic CAI.Same as basic CAI. Adds realism.Adds realism. Adds interest.Adds interest. Allows exposure to Allows exposure to

hazardous events.hazardous events.

Same as basic CAI.Same as basic CAI. Adds additional cost.Adds additional cost.

$50,000-$150,000 per hour $50,000-$150,000 per hour of instruction due to:of instruction due to:

* Script writers* Script writers * Production specialists* Production specialists * Camera crews* Camera crews

PROS CONS

5. 5. Simulation/VestibuleSimulation/Vestibule

Provides realism.Provides realism. Allows active practice.Allows active practice. Provides immediate Provides immediate

feedback.feedback. Allows exposure to Allows exposure to

hazardous events.hazardous events. High transfer to job.High transfer to job. No job interference.No job interference. Lowers trainee stress.Lowers trainee stress.

Cannot cover all job aspects. Cannot cover all job aspects. Limited number of trainees.Limited number of trainees. Can be very expensive (for Can be very expensive (for

example, “aircraft simulators” example, “aircraft simulators” and “virtual reality” and “virtual reality” simulators).simulators).

PROS CONS

6. On-The-Job Training6. On-The-Job Training

Provides realism.Provides realism. Allows active practice.Allows active practice. Provides immediate Provides immediate

feedback.feedback. High motivation.High motivation. High transfer to job.High transfer to job. Lowers training cost.Lowers training cost.

Disruptions to operations.Disruptions to operations. May damage equipment.May damage equipment. Inconsistent across Inconsistent across

departments.departments. Inadequate focus on Inadequate focus on

underlying principles.underlying principles. Lack of systematic Lack of systematic

feedback.feedback. Transfer of improper Transfer of improper

procedures.procedures. Trainee stress.Trainee stress.

PROS CONS