Chapter 8Chapter 8

Circulation & Immunity Circulation & Immunity

Goals for This ChapterGoals for This Chapter

1.1. Identify the major structures of the Identify the major structures of the circulatory systemcirculatory system

2.2. Describe the structure and function Describe the structure and function of blood vesselsof blood vessels

3.3. Describe the action of the heart and Describe the action of the heart and the circulation of blood through the the circulation of blood through the bodybody

4.4. Investigate heart rate and blood Investigate heart rate and blood pressurepressure

5.5. Identify disorders of the circulatory Identify disorders of the circulatory systemsystem

6.6. Investigate the relationship between Investigate the relationship between blood pressure, heart rate, and blood pressure, heart rate, and exerciseexercise

7.7. Describe the main components of Describe the main components of bloodblood

8.8. Explain the role of blood in regulating Explain the role of blood in regulating blood temperatureblood temperature

9.9. Explain the role of the circulatory Explain the role of the circulatory system in the exchange of matter system in the exchange of matter and energyand energy

10.10. Identify blood disorders and the Identify blood disorders and the technologies used to treat themtechnologies used to treat them

11.11. Describe and explain the function of Describe and explain the function of the lymphatic systemthe lymphatic system

12.12. Identify and list the cellular and non-Identify and list the cellular and non-cellular components of the immune cellular components of the immune systemsystem

13.13. Describe the role of cellular and non-Describe the role of cellular and non-cellular components of the immune cellular components of the immune systemsystem

Section 8.1 – Structures of the Section 8.1 – Structures of the Circulatory SystemCirculatory System

Main Functions of the Circulatory Main Functions of the Circulatory SystemSystem

Oxygen and nutrients are transported to Oxygen and nutrients are transported to our cells, and waste must be removed by our cells, and waste must be removed by the circulatory systemthe circulatory system

Our internal temperature is also regulated Our internal temperature is also regulated by our circulatory systemby our circulatory system

Our circulatory system also protects us Our circulatory system also protects us from blood loss due to injury and infectionsfrom blood loss due to injury and infections

William HarveyWilliam Harvey Early theories suggested Early theories suggested

that blood ebbed and that blood ebbed and flowed like a tideflowed like a tide

William Harvey suggested William Harvey suggested that the heart pumped that the heart pumped blood through the bodyblood through the body

He determined that the He determined that the body’s blood volume is body’s blood volume is circulated over and over circulated over and over through the bodythrough the body

The HeartThe Heart

The heart is a muscular structure The heart is a muscular structure about the size of the human fistabout the size of the human fist

It is surrounded by a fluid-filled It is surrounded by a fluid-filled membrane called the membrane called the pericardiumpericardium

Circulation Within The HeartCirculation Within The Heart

The The superior vena cavasuperior vena cava brings in blood brings in blood from the head, and the from the head, and the inferior vena inferior vena cava cava brings in blood from the rest of the brings in blood from the rest of the bodybody

Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium from the the left atrium from the pulmonary veinspulmonary veins

The The pulmonary arteries pulmonary arteries send send deoxygenated blood from the right deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungsventricle to the lungs

The The aorta aorta carries oxygenated blood carries oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to the rest from the left side of the heart to the rest of the bodyof the body

Coronary arteriesCoronary arteries run along the run along the muscle tissue on the surface of the muscle tissue on the surface of the heart, bringing oxygen and nutrients heart, bringing oxygen and nutrients to the muscleto the muscle

If these arteries become blocked, If these arteries become blocked, then the muscle will slowly diethen the muscle will slowly die

The heart, unlike other organs, will The heart, unlike other organs, will not slow down if there are not not slow down if there are not enough nutrients or oxygen to enough nutrients or oxygen to support itsupport it

Coronary Bypass SurgeryCoronary Bypass Surgery

In this surgery, In this surgery, grafted veins are used grafted veins are used to provide a route to provide a route through which blood through which blood may travel around the may travel around the blocked vesselsblocked vessels

Setting The Heart’s TempoSetting The Heart’s Tempo

The muscle of the The muscle of the heart is unlike other heart is unlike other muscles in the bodymuscles in the body

The muscle cells of the The muscle cells of the heart are branchedheart are branched

These muscle tissues, These muscle tissues, known as known as myogenic myogenic musclemuscle will beat will beat without nerve without nerve stimulationstimulation

The tempo of the heart is set by the The tempo of the heart is set by the sinoatrial (SA) nodesinoatrial (SA) node and the and the atrioventricular atrioventricular (AV)(AV) node node These node acts as These node acts as

a pacemaker, a pacemaker, ensuring that all of ensuring that all of the muscle beats at the muscle beats at the same rhythmthe same rhythm

Surgeons that Surgeons that perform open-heart perform open-heart surgery must be surgery must be very careful not to very careful not to cut any of the cut any of the nerves running from nerves running from the SA node or the the SA node or the AV nodeAV node

ElectrocardiogramsElectrocardiograms

The electrical activity in the heart The electrical activity in the heart can be measured using an can be measured using an electrocardiogram (ECG)electrocardiogram (ECG)

In a healthy heart rhythm, there are In a healthy heart rhythm, there are three waves:three waves:

ECG Demo GameECG Demo Game

A P wave indicates contraction of the A P wave indicates contraction of the atriaatria

A large spike, known as the QRS A large spike, known as the QRS wave records ventricular contractionwave records ventricular contraction

The final T wave indicates recovery The final T wave indicates recovery of the ventriclesof the ventricles

Dead heart tissue will create an ECG Dead heart tissue will create an ECG with abnormal peaks and lineswith abnormal peaks and lines

Heart SoundsHeart Sounds

The familiar sounds of a heartbeat are The familiar sounds of a heartbeat are due to the opening and closing of valvesdue to the opening and closing of valves

As the ventricles contract, blood is As the ventricles contract, blood is forced up the sides of the ventricle and forced up the sides of the ventricle and the AV valve closes, producing a “lubb” the AV valve closes, producing a “lubb” soundsound

As the ventricles relax, blood pressure As the ventricles relax, blood pressure decreases and the semilunar valves decreases and the semilunar valves close, causing the “dubb” soundclose, causing the “dubb” sound

If a valve does not close completely, If a valve does not close completely, then a then a murmurmurmur is detected is detected

This murmur is the sound of blood This murmur is the sound of blood rushing backwards through a valve, rushing backwards through a valve, and creates a gurgling soundand creates a gurgling sound

Cardiac OutputCardiac Output

Cardiac outputCardiac output refers to the amount refers to the amount of blood that flows from each side of of blood that flows from each side of the heart per minutethe heart per minute

Two factors affect cardiac output:Two factors affect cardiac output:

1.1. Stroke Volume – Stroke Volume – the amount of blood the amount of blood pumped by each beat of the heartpumped by each beat of the heart

2.2. Heart Rate – Heart Rate – the number of times the the number of times the heart beats per minuteheart beats per minute

Ex: Calculating Cardiac Ex: Calculating Cardiac OutputOutput

Tom’s heart has a stroke volume of Tom’s heart has a stroke volume of 50 mL and a heartrate of 100 beats 50 mL and a heartrate of 100 beats per minute. Calculate his cardiac per minute. Calculate his cardiac output.output.

In general, the average person will In general, the average person will have a cardiac output of about 5L have a cardiac output of about 5L per minuteper minute

People with lower resting heart rates People with lower resting heart rates have a more muscular heart and can have a more muscular heart and can pump a greater volume with each pump a greater volume with each beatbeat

Vessels that carry Vessels that carry blood to and from blood to and from the lungs form the the lungs form the pulmonary pulmonary circulatory systemcirculatory system

Vessels that carry Vessels that carry blood to and from blood to and from the body’s other the body’s other tissues form the tissues form the systemic circulatory systemic circulatory systemsystem

Blood VesselsBlood Vessels

Arteries Arteries are vessels that carry high-are vessels that carry high-pressure blood away from the heartpressure blood away from the heart

The pulse you feel is created by The pulse you feel is created by changes in the diameter of the vessel changes in the diameter of the vessel when blood flows through itwhen blood flows through it

Sometimes, an artery wall will Sometimes, an artery wall will become weak and bulge (known as become weak and bulge (known as an an aneurysmaneurysm))

If this is not attended to, the artery If this is not attended to, the artery will burstwill burst

This can lead to a stroke if it occurs This can lead to a stroke if it occurs in the brainin the brain

If a person’s diet contains too much If a person’s diet contains too much fat, it will build up in the arteriesfat, it will build up in the arteries

The fat encourages a fibrous growth The fat encourages a fibrous growth of calcium and other minerals to of calcium and other minerals to deposit on its surface (this is known deposit on its surface (this is known as as plaqueplaque))

The fat and plaque can partially (or in The fat and plaque can partially (or in extreme cases almost completely) extreme cases almost completely) block the passage of bloodblock the passage of blood

This condition is known as This condition is known as atherosclerosisatherosclerosis

This leads to very high blood pressureThis leads to very high blood pressure Around the deposit, blood can clotAround the deposit, blood can clot This will reduce the amount of oxygen This will reduce the amount of oxygen

and nutrients from reaching the tissuesand nutrients from reaching the tissues If this occurs in the vessels supplying If this occurs in the vessels supplying

heart muscle, the patient will have a heart muscle, the patient will have a heart attackheart attack

If this occurs in the vessels supplying If this occurs in the vessels supplying the nervous tissue of the brain, it the nervous tissue of the brain, it results in a strokeresults in a stroke

Treatment of Treatment of AtherosclerosisAtherosclerosis

AngioplastAngioplasty may be y may be used to used to treat this treat this conditioncondition

From the arteries, the blood enters From the arteries, the blood enters smaller vessels called smaller vessels called arteriolesarterioles

The diameter of the arterioles is The diameter of the arterioles is controlled by the sympathetic nervous controlled by the sympathetic nervous systemsystem

The arterioles can adjust their The arterioles can adjust their diameter to restrict blood flow diameter to restrict blood flow ((vasoconstrictionvasoconstriction) or to increase blood ) or to increase blood flow (flow (vasodilationvasodilation))

From the arterioles, the blood flows From the arterioles, the blood flows into the into the capillariescapillaries

Unlike other blood vessels, capillaries Unlike other blood vessels, capillaries are only one layer of cells thickare only one layer of cells thick

As well, blood cells must move As well, blood cells must move through these capillaries single-filethrough these capillaries single-file

The thin walls of the capillaries The thin walls of the capillaries facilitate diffusion of nutrients and facilitate diffusion of nutrients and gases (and waste) to and from the gases (and waste) to and from the neighboring tissueneighboring tissue

However, capillaries are easily However, capillaries are easily damageddamaged

When capillaries are broken, the When capillaries are broken, the blood leaves the capillary and enters blood leaves the capillary and enters the the interstitial spacesinterstitial spaces between the between the cells and creates a bruisecells and creates a bruise

The capillaries enlarge and turn into The capillaries enlarge and turn into venules and veinsvenules and veins

However, unlike the arteries, the However, unlike the arteries, the blood in the veins is not under high blood in the veins is not under high pressurepressure

So, how does blood get back to the So, how does blood get back to the heart?heart?

William Harvey discovered that veins William Harvey discovered that veins have tiny valves that prevent blood have tiny valves that prevent blood from flowing in the wrong directionfrom flowing in the wrong direction

As well, the skeletal muscles help to As well, the skeletal muscles help to push the blood back to the heart as push the blood back to the heart as they contract and increase pressure they contract and increase pressure in the veinsin the veins

As much as 50% of your blood can be As much as 50% of your blood can be found in the veins (they act as a found in the veins (they act as a blood reservoir)blood reservoir)

As people get older, the veins lose As people get older, the veins lose their elasticitytheir elasticity

Over time, the blood can pool in the Over time, the blood can pool in the vein and damage the valvesvein and damage the valves

This causes the blood to pool at the This causes the blood to pool at the extremities, causing bulges in the extremities, causing bulges in the hands and feet (known as hands and feet (known as varicose varicose veinsveins))

Blood PressureBlood Pressure

Blood pressure is measured using a Blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometersphygmomanometer

This device fills with air and closes This device fills with air and closes off blood flow in the brachial artery of off blood flow in the brachial artery of the armthe arm

The pressure is slowly released until a The pressure is slowly released until a low-pitched sound can be heardlow-pitched sound can be heard

At this point, the At this point, the systolicsystolic blood pressure blood pressure is taken (this is the pressure produced is taken (this is the pressure produced by contraction of the ventricles)by contraction of the ventricles)

The pressure is released until the sound The pressure is released until the sound disappearsdisappears

This is when the This is when the diastolic diastolic blood blood pressure is taken (the pressure pressure is taken (the pressure produced when the ventricles are produced when the ventricles are relaxed)relaxed)

The highest blood pressures are The highest blood pressures are found in the aorta because it is found in the aorta because it is nearest to the heartnearest to the heart

Blood pressure drops rapidly as the Blood pressure drops rapidly as the blood enters the capillaries and slowsblood enters the capillaries and slows

Blood pressure is regulated by Blood pressure is regulated by cardiac output and the diameter of cardiac output and the diameter of the arteries and arteriolesthe arteries and arterioles

Dilation and constriction of the Dilation and constriction of the arterioles can depend on the arterioles can depend on the presence of certain chemicalspresence of certain chemicals

Factors Affecting Arteriolar Factors Affecting Arteriolar ResistanceResistance

EpinephrineEpinephrine Arteriolar constriction, Arteriolar constriction, except to heart, muscles and except to heart, muscles and skinskin

Sympathetic NervesSympathetic Nerves Arteriolar constriction, Arteriolar constriction, except to skeletal and except to skeletal and cardiac musclecardiac muscle

Acid AccumulationAcid Accumulation Arteriolar dilationArteriolar dilation

COCO22 Accumulation Accumulation Arteriolar dilationArteriolar dilation

Lactic Acid Lactic Acid AccumulationAccumulation

Arteriolar dilationArteriolar dilation

8.2 – Blood and Circulation8.2 – Blood and Circulation

Blood is considered a connective Blood is considered a connective tissue because it links all cells and tissue because it links all cells and organs in the bodyorgans in the body

Blood consists of a fluid portion and a Blood consists of a fluid portion and a solid portionsolid portion

Plasma – The Fluid Plasma – The Fluid ComponentComponent

55% of blood volume is plasma (fluids, 55% of blood volume is plasma (fluids, proteins, glucose, gases, wastes and proteins, glucose, gases, wastes and vitamins and minerals)vitamins and minerals)

Blood proteins come in 3 types:Blood proteins come in 3 types:

1.1. AlbuminsAlbumins – serve to maintain osmotic – serve to maintain osmotic balancebalance

2.2. GlobulinsGlobulins – act as part of immune – act as part of immune responseresponse

3.3. FibrinogenFibrinogen – helps with blood clotting – helps with blood clotting

The Other 45%...The Other 45%...

There are several cell types that There are several cell types that make up the remaining volume of make up the remaining volume of blood:blood:

1.1.ErythrocytesErythrocytes

2.2.LeukocytesLeukocytes

3.3.PlateletsPlatelets

ErythrocytesErythrocytes

Erythrocytes are redErythrocytes are red

blood cellsblood cells They are specially designed to carry They are specially designed to carry

oxygenoxygen Red blood cells lack a nucleus and have a Red blood cells lack a nucleus and have a

“folded disk” shape“folded disk” shape This allows them to have a much greater This allows them to have a much greater

surface area than a spherical cellsurface area than a spherical cell However, without a nucleus, red blood cells However, without a nucleus, red blood cells

cannot dividecannot divide

LeukocytesLeukocytes

These are also known as white blood These are also known as white blood cellscells

These cells are responsible for These cells are responsible for immune system responsesimmune system responses

There are a number ofThere are a number of

different leukocyte typesdifferent leukocyte types

PlateletsPlatelets

PlateletsPlatelets are formed from stem cell are formed from stem cell cytoplasm and have irregular shapescytoplasm and have irregular shapes

The platelets float through blood The platelets float through blood vessels and catch on broken vessel vessels and catch on broken vessel wallswalls

This causes a tear in the platelet, This causes a tear in the platelet, which initiates blood clottingwhich initiates blood clotting

Cell TypesCell Types

Blood ClottingBlood Clotting

Clotting maintains homeostasis by Clotting maintains homeostasis by preventing massive blood losspreventing massive blood loss

This occurs in a series of stepsThis occurs in a series of steps

Clotting ProcessClotting Process

1.1. When platelets burst on contact with a When platelets burst on contact with a break in a vessel wall, they release break in a vessel wall, they release compounds that combine with other compounds that combine with other blood components to form a protein blood components to form a protein known as known as thromboplastinthromboplastin

2.2. Thromboplastin and calcium ions activate Thromboplastin and calcium ions activate a blood protein known as prothrombina blood protein known as prothrombin

3.3. Prothrombin is converted to an enzyme Prothrombin is converted to an enzyme known as thrombin, which splits up a known as thrombin, which splits up a fibrinogen moleculefibrinogen molecule

4.4. Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin threads, which wrap around the threads, which wrap around the damaged area, sealing itdamaged area, sealing it

Visual Representation of a Visual Representation of a Clot:Clot:

The Functions of BloodThe Functions of Blood

1.1. Transport:Transport:

2.2. Homeostatic RegulationHomeostatic Regulation

Temperature RegulationTemperature Regulation

Circulation and the Action of Circulation and the Action of CapillariesCapillaries

The combined The combined surface area of surface area of the capillaries the capillaries covers about 6300 covers about 6300 mm22

It is throughout It is throughout this huge surface this huge surface that we exchange that we exchange materials between materials between our blood and our our blood and our cellscells

Capillary ExchangeCapillary Exchange

Cells are surrounded by Cells are surrounded by interstitial interstitial fluidfluid, which is also known as , which is also known as extracellular fluid or tissue fluidextracellular fluid or tissue fluid

Materials such as oxygen and Materials such as oxygen and nutrients have a low concentration in nutrients have a low concentration in the interstitial fluid, but high the interstitial fluid, but high concentrations in the bloodconcentrations in the blood

Likewise, waste products have a high Likewise, waste products have a high concentration in the interstitial fluid, concentration in the interstitial fluid, but low concentrations in the bloodbut low concentrations in the blood

Blood moves slowly through the Blood moves slowly through the capillaries, which increases the time capillaries, which increases the time over which diffusion may occurover which diffusion may occur

Blood DisordersBlood Disorders

1.1. HemophiliaHemophilia

2.2. LeukemiaLeukemia

8.3 – The Lymphatic System & 8.3 – The Lymphatic System & ImmunityImmunity

The lymphatic The lymphatic system is a system is a network of network of vessels, glands, vessels, glands, and nodes and nodes spread spread throughout the throughout the bodybody

The Lymphatic The Lymphatic SystemSystem The lymphatic system The lymphatic system

connects to our connects to our circulatory system at the circulatory system at the subclavian veinssubclavian veins

Lymph works with white Lymph works with white blood cells to protect the blood cells to protect the body from infection body from infection (lymphocytes mature in (lymphocytes mature in the lymph nodes)the lymph nodes)

The lymph nodes also The lymph nodes also contain macrophages contain macrophages which trap and destroy which trap and destroy bacteriabacteria

The Human Defense SystemThe Human Defense System

The first line of defense for the body The first line of defense for the body is to prevent organisms from enteringis to prevent organisms from entering

The skin and mucus that line the The skin and mucus that line the respiratory passages serve to keep respiratory passages serve to keep out most microbesout most microbes

Stomach acids, oils in the skin and Stomach acids, oils in the skin and enzymes in tears also break down enzymes in tears also break down bacteriabacteria

Non-Specific DefensesNon-Specific Defenses

This is also known as This is also known as cell-mediated cell-mediated immunityimmunity

Neutrophils, monocytes, and Neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages all kill bacteria by macrophages all kill bacteria by engulfing themengulfing them

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Specific Defenses (Antibody-Specific Defenses (Antibody-Mediated Immunity)Mediated Immunity)

Antibodies are proteins that Antibodies are proteins that recognize foreign substances and recognize foreign substances and either neutralize or destroy themeither neutralize or destroy them

Lymphocytes are primarily Lymphocytes are primarily responsible for this immune responseresponsible for this immune response

T and B cells (Lymphocytes)T and B cells (Lymphocytes)

T cellsT cells are produced in the thymus are produced in the thymus gland and signal an attack from gland and signal an attack from foreign invadersforeign invaders

B cellsB cells produce the Y-shaped produce the Y-shaped antibodiesantibodies

Antigens and AntibodiesAntigens and Antibodies

Antibodies are Y-shaped Antibodies are Y-shaped proteinsproteins

An antibody attaches to An antibody attaches to specific antigens because specific antigens because they have similar shapesthey have similar shapes

Often the antigen-Often the antigen-antibody complex makes antibody complex makes the invader more visible the invader more visible to wandering to wandering macrophages, which macrophages, which engulf the bacteriaengulf the bacteria

Antibodies can bind to toxins, changing Antibodies can bind to toxins, changing their shape and preventing them from their shape and preventing them from entering cellsentering cells

Antibodies also work in the same manner Antibodies also work in the same manner on viruseson viruses

However, viruses quickly mutate and However, viruses quickly mutate and prevent the same antibodies from working prevent the same antibodies from working for very longfor very long

HIV can actually “hide” inside the T cells HIV can actually “hide” inside the T cells that are supposed to signal its presencethat are supposed to signal its presence

Recognizing AntigensRecognizing Antigens

When an invader is When an invader is destroyed by a destroyed by a macrophage, its macrophage, its antigens go to the antigens go to the macrophage surfacemacrophage surface

The macrophage The macrophage then couples with then couples with helper T cellshelper T cells, which , which read the antigen read the antigen shape and release shape and release lymphokinelymphokine

This chemical causes B This chemical causes B cells to divide and start to cells to divide and start to produce antibodiesproduce antibodies

The helper T cells also The helper T cells also activate activate killer T cellskiller T cells

The killer T cells destroy The killer T cells destroy invading cells and body invading cells and body cells that are infected by cells that are infected by viruses by puncturing their viruses by puncturing their cell membranes cell membranes

Killer T cells can also Killer T cells can also destroy cancer cells if they destroy cancer cells if they have antigens that are have antigens that are different from normal body different from normal body cellscells

Once an infection is fought off, Once an infection is fought off, suppressor T cellssuppressor T cells signal the immune signal the immune system to shut downsystem to shut down

Phagocytes clean up any dead or Phagocytes clean up any dead or injured B and T cells that remaininjured B and T cells that remain

Finally, Finally, memory T cellsmemory T cells produce produce copies of the invader antigens so that copies of the invader antigens so that they can be more easily identified in they can be more easily identified in the futurethe future

Blood TypesBlood Types

Early blood transfusion experiments Early blood transfusion experiments often led to the death of the patientoften led to the death of the patient

It wasn’t until the 20It wasn’t until the 20thth century that century that doctors realized that there were doctors realized that there were different blood groupsdifferent blood groups

The glycoproteins on the surface of The glycoproteins on the surface of blood cells can differ from one blood cells can differ from one person to anotherperson to another

Blood Groups – How They Blood Groups – How They WorkWork

individuals with an A blood type have individuals with an A blood type have the “A” version of the glycoprotein the “A” version of the glycoprotein on the cell, while those with B blood on the cell, while those with B blood types have the “B” version of the types have the “B” version of the glycoproteinglycoprotein

individuals with AB blood types have individuals with AB blood types have both markers, while type O both markers, while type O individuals do not have any markersindividuals do not have any markers

ABO Antigens ABO Antigens and Antibodiesand Antibodies

Blood Blood TypeType

Antigen Antigen PresentPresent

AntibodiAntibodies in es in

PlasmaPlasma

Blood Typing Demo

Rhesus FactorRhesus Factor

A second antigen, A second antigen, Rhesus factorRhesus factor, is , is also found on red blood cellsalso found on red blood cells

People can be Rh+ or Rh- (either the People can be Rh+ or Rh- (either the antigen is present or it is not)antigen is present or it is not)

This can often affect the health of a This can often affect the health of a fetusfetus

Rhesus Factor and Rhesus Factor and PregnancyPregnancy

If the baby receives Rh+ factor from the father, If the baby receives Rh+ factor from the father, but the mother is Rh-, the baby’s blood will come but the mother is Rh-, the baby’s blood will come into contact with the mother’s immune system at into contact with the mother’s immune system at birthbirth

As a result, the mother starts to produce As a result, the mother starts to produce antibodies against the Rh+ bloodantibodies against the Rh+ blood

Any subsequent fetuses that are Rh+ will Any subsequent fetuses that are Rh+ will experience clumping of blood in their veins due to experience clumping of blood in their veins due to the mother’s antibodiesthe mother’s antibodies

Treatment for this condition usually involves a Treatment for this condition usually involves a transfusion of Rh- blood into the baby at birth (it transfusion of Rh- blood into the baby at birth (it allows times for the mother’s antibodies to break allows times for the mother’s antibodies to break down)down)

Immune System DisordersImmune System Disorders

1.1. Autoimmune DisorderAutoimmune Disorder

2.2. AllergiesAllergies