chapter 8

Copyright © 2008 Allyn & BaconCopyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon

Chapter 8Chapter 8Human DevelopmentHuman Development

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Chapter 8 OverviewChapter 8 Overview

Theories of developmentTheories of development Prenatal developmentPrenatal development InfancyInfancy Early and middle childhoodEarly and middle childhood AdolescenceAdolescence Early and middle adulthoodEarly and middle adulthood Later adulthoodLater adulthood Death and dyingDeath and dying


Theories of Theories of DevelopmentDevelopment Developmental psychologyDevelopmental psychology

– The study of how humans grow, The study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the develop, and change throughout the life spanlife span


What did Piaget find regarding What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive stages of cognitive development?development?

Piaget proposed that cognitive ability Piaget proposed that cognitive ability develops in four stages, each involving a develops in four stages, each involving a qualitatively different way of reasoning qualitatively different way of reasoning and understanding the worldand understanding the world

Four stages of developmentFour stages of development– Sensori-motor stageSensori-motor stage– Preoperational stagePreoperational stage– Concrete operational stageConcrete operational stage– Formal operational stageFormal operational stage



During the During the sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage (birth (birth to 2 years),to 2 years), infants gain an infants gain an understanding of the world through understanding of the world through their senses and motor activitiestheir senses and motor activities– Infants act on objects and events that are Infants act on objects and events that are

directly perceiveddirectly perceived Major achievement of this stage is Major achievement of this stage is

object permanenceobject permanence– The realization that objects continue to The realization that objects continue to

exist when they can no longer be exist when they can no longer be perceivedperceived



During the During the preoperational stage preoperational stage (age 2-7), children acquire (age 2-7), children acquire symbolic symbolic functionfunction– Understanding that one thing can stand Understanding that one thing can stand

for anotherfor another During this stage, children exhibit During this stage, children exhibit

egocentrismegocentrism– Belief that everyone sees what they see, Belief that everyone sees what they see,

thinks what they think, etc.thinks what they think, etc.


What did Piaget find regarding What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive stages of cognitive development?development? In the In the concrete operational stage concrete operational stage (7 (7

toto 11 or 12 years), children acquire the 11 or 12 years), children acquire the concept of concept of conservationconservation– Understanding that a given quantity of Understanding that a given quantity of

matter stays the same despite matter stays the same despite rearrangement or change in its rearrangement or change in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken awaytaken away

– Conservation develops because children Conservation develops because children begin to understand begin to understand reversibilityreversibility

Realizing that any change in the shape, position, Realizing that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentallyor order of matter can be reversed mentally


Piaget’s conservation Piaget’s conservation of volume taskof volume task



In the In the formal operational stageformal operational stage (age 11 or 12 years and beyond) (age 11 or 12 years and beyond) preadolescents and adolescents preadolescents and adolescents acquire the capacity for acquire the capacity for hypothetico-hypothetico-deductive thinkingdeductive thinking– The ability to apply logical thought to The ability to apply logical thought to

abstract and hypothetical situations in the abstract and hypothetical situations in the past, present, and futurepast, present, and future


What are some alternative What are some alternative approaches to Piaget’s theory?approaches to Piaget’s theory?

Information processingInformation processing theorists theorists argue that stage-like advances in argue that stage-like advances in cognition are due to improvements in cognition are due to improvements in processes such as working memoryprocesses such as working memory

Vygotsky’s Vygotsky’s sociocultural approachsociocultural approach emphasizes that cognitive emphasizes that cognitive development occurs within a development occurs within a sociocultural context in which parents sociocultural context in which parents and teachers provide age-appropriate and teachers provide age-appropriate guidanceguidance


What did Kohlberg claim about What did Kohlberg claim about the development of moral the development of moral reasoning?reasoning? Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage

theory of moral developmenttheory of moral development He presented moral dilemmas to He presented moral dilemmas to

research participants and analyzed the research participants and analyzed the moral reasoning that they describedmoral reasoning that they described

He classified moral reasoning into three He classified moral reasoning into three levelslevels, with each level having two , with each level having two stagesstages– People progress through the levels and People progress through the levels and

stages in a fixed orderstages in a fixed order– Each level has a prerequisite stage of Each level has a prerequisite stage of

cognitive developmentcognitive development


What did Kohlberg claim about What did Kohlberg claim about the development of moral the development of moral reasoning?reasoning? Preconventional levelPreconventional level

– Lowest level of moral developmentLowest level of moral development– ““Right” is whatever gains a reward or Right” is whatever gains a reward or

avoids punishmentavoids punishment Conventional levelConventional level

– Right and wrong are based on the Right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of othersinternalized standards of others

– ““Right” is whatever is approved by others Right” is whatever is approved by others or is consistent with the laws of societyor is consistent with the laws of society

Postconventional levelPostconventional level– Highest level of moral reasoningHighest level of moral reasoning– ““Right” is whatever furthers basic human Right” is whatever furthers basic human

rightsrights


Colby & Kohlberg’s longitudinal Colby & Kohlberg’s longitudinal study of moral developmentstudy of moral development

Studied moral Studied moral reasoning at different reasoning at different agesages

Conventional thinking Conventional thinking (stages 3 and 4) is not (stages 3 and 4) is not predominant until after predominant until after age 12age 12

Postconventional Postconventional thinking (stage 5) first thinking (stage 5) first appears in adulthood, appears in adulthood, but is still rare in 30’sbut is still rare in 30’s


How does Erickson’s theory How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of describe the process of psychosocial development?psychosocial development?

Erik Erikson proposed eight Erik Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stagespsychosocial stages that encompass that encompass the entire lifespanthe entire lifespan

Each stage is defined by a conflict that Each stage is defined by a conflict that must be resolved for healthy must be resolved for healthy personality development to occurpersonality development to occur


How does Erickson’s theory How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of describe the process of psychosocial development?psychosocial development? Basic trust vs. basic mistrustBasic trust vs. basic mistrust

– Birth to 1 yearBirth to 1 year Autonomy vs. shame and doubtAutonomy vs. shame and doubt

– 1 to 3 years1 to 3 years Initiative vs. guiltInitiative vs. guilt

– 3 to 6 years3 to 6 years Industry vs. inferiorityIndustry vs. inferiority

– 6 years to puberty6 years to puberty


How does Erickson’s theory How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of describe the process of psychosocial development?psychosocial development?

Identity vs. role confusionIdentity vs. role confusion– AdolescenceAdolescence

Intimacy vs. isolationIntimacy vs. isolation– Young adulthoodYoung adulthood

Generativity vs. stagnationGenerativity vs. stagnation– Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood

Ego integrity vs. despairEgo integrity vs. despair– Late adulthoodLate adulthood


Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

The development from The development from conception to birthconception to birth


What happens during each of What happens during each of the three stages of prenatal the three stages of prenatal development?development? Period of the Period of the zygotezygote

– Zygote attaches to the uterine liningZygote attaches to the uterine lining– Ends 1 to 2 weeks after conceptionEnds 1 to 2 weeks after conception

Period of the Period of the embryoembryo– Major systems, organs, and structures of Major systems, organs, and structures of

the body developthe body develop– Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks

after conceptionafter conception Period of the Period of the fetusfetus

– Rapid growth and development of body Rapid growth and development of body structures, organs, and systemsstructures, organs, and systems

– 9 weeks after conception until birth9 weeks after conception until birth


InfancyInfancy

A A neonate, a neonate, a newborn infant up newborn infant up to one month old, comes to one month old, comes equipped with an impressive equipped with an impressive range of range of reflexesreflexes, built-in , built-in responses to certain stimuli that responses to certain stimuli that they need to ensure survival in they need to ensure survival in their new worldtheir new world


How do infants’ perceptual and How do infants’ perceptual and

motormotor abilities change over the abilities change over the first 18 months of life?first 18 months of life?

Robert Fantz found that Robert Fantz found that infants prefer to fixate infants prefer to fixate on some objects over on some objects over othersothers

Newborn infants can Newborn infants can discriminate between discriminate between objectsobjects

Newborns’ visual acuity Newborns’ visual acuity is about 20/600, but is about 20/600, but improves rapidly during improves rapidly during infancy infancy


How do infants’ perceptual and How do infants’ perceptual and

motormotor abilities change over the abilities change over the first 18 months of life?first 18 months of life? Most infants develop Most infants develop

motor skills in the motor skills in the sequence shown in the sequence shown in the figurefigure

Ages listed are averagesAges listed are averages– normal infants may reach normal infants may reach

any milestone months any milestone months earlier or later than earlier or later than averageaverage

Motor development is Motor development is largely determined by largely determined by maturationmaturation


TemperamentTemperament

A person’s behavioral style or A person’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding characteristic way of responding to the environmentto the environment


How does temperament shape How does temperament shape infants’ behavior?infants’ behavior? Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970) Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970)

identified three general types of identified three general types of temperamenttemperament– EasyEasy

Have pleasant moods, approach new people Have pleasant moods, approach new people and situations positivelyand situations positively

– DifficultDifficult Have generally unpleasant moods, react Have generally unpleasant moods, react

negatively to new people and situationsnegatively to new people and situations

– Slow-to-warm-upSlow-to-warm-up Tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat Tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat

negative in moodnegative in mood Infant temperament is strongly influenced by heredity Infant temperament is strongly influenced by heredity

and is somewhat predictive of personality later in lifeand is somewhat predictive of personality later in life


How do the four attachment How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants patterns identified in infants differ?differ? Attachment Attachment is the strong affectionate is the strong affectionate

bond a child forms with the mother or bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiverprimary caregiver

Harry Harlow found that Harry Harlow found that contact contact comfortcomfort forms the basis of forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeysattachment in rhesus monkeys

Human infants exhibit Human infants exhibit separation separation anxietyanxiety and and stranger anxietystranger anxiety once once attachment has formed, at about 6 to attachment has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age8 months of age


How do the four attachment How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants patterns identified in infants differ?differ? Secure attachmentSecure attachment

– About 65% of infantsAbout 65% of infants– Use mother as a secure base for exploringUse mother as a secure base for exploring– Distressed by separation from caregivers, Distressed by separation from caregivers,

greet caregivers when they returngreet caregivers when they return– More cooperative and content than other More cooperative and content than other

infantsinfants– Display better social skills as preschool Display better social skills as preschool

childrenchildren Avoidant attachmentAvoidant attachment

– About 20% of infantsAbout 20% of infants– Not responsive to mother, not troubled when Not responsive to mother, not troubled when

she leavesshe leaves– May actively avoid contact with mother after May actively avoid contact with mother after

separationseparation


How do the four attachment How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants patterns identified in infants differ?differ?

Resistant attachmentResistant attachment– 10 to 15% of infants10 to 15% of infants– Seek close contact with mother, and tend Seek close contact with mother, and tend

not to branch out and explorenot to branch out and explore– After separation, may display anger toward After separation, may display anger toward

mother; not easily comfortedmother; not easily comforted Disorganized/disoriented Disorganized/disoriented

attachmentattachment– 5 to 10% of infants5 to 10% of infants– Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory

and disoriented behavior when reunitedand disoriented behavior when reunited


Early and Middle Early and Middle ChildhoodChildhood Mastery of language, both spoken Mastery of language, both spoken

and written, is just one of several and written, is just one of several important developmental important developmental processes that happen in early processes that happen in early and middle childhood.and middle childhood.


What are the milestones of What are the milestones of language development, and language development, and how do various theorists how do various theorists explain them?explain them? BabblingBabbling

– Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which begins between 4 and 6 monthsbegins between 4 and 6 months

One-word stageOne-word stage– First words spoken at about 1 yearFirst words spoken at about 1 year– First words usually represent objects that First words usually represent objects that

move or that infants can act onmove or that infants can act on Two-word stageTwo-word stage

– Usually begins about 18-20 monthsUsually begins about 18-20 months


What are the milestones of What are the milestones of language development, and language development, and how do various theorists how do various theorists explain them?explain them? Telegraphic speechTelegraphic speech

– Between 2 and 3 years, children start Between 2 and 3 years, children start using short sentences that contain only using short sentences that contain only essential content wordsessential content words

Children follow grammatical rules in Children follow grammatical rules in their speech, as indicated by their speech, as indicated by overregularizationoverregularization– Misapplying a grammatical rule, such as Misapplying a grammatical rule, such as

adding “ed” to form a past tenseadding “ed” to form a past tense Children say “goed”, comed”, “doed”, etc.Children say “goed”, comed”, “doed”, etc.


What are the milestones of What are the milestones of language development, and language development, and how do various theorists how do various theorists explain them?explain them? Learning theoriesLearning theories

– Language is acquired in the same way as Language is acquired in the same way as other behaviors– through imitation and other behaviors– through imitation and reinforcementreinforcement

Noam Chomsky’s Noam Chomsky’s nativistnativist positionposition– Language ability is largely innateLanguage ability is largely innate– The brain contains a The brain contains a language acquisition language acquisition

devicedevice Most researchers endorse an Most researchers endorse an

interactionist approachinteractionist approach– Acknowledging that infants have innate Acknowledging that infants have innate

capacity for acquiring language, but also capacity for acquiring language, but also recognizing environmental influences on recognizing environmental influences on language learninglanguage learning


What outcomes are often What outcomes are often associated with the three associated with the three parenting styles identified by parenting styles identified by Baumrind?Baumrind? Authoritarian parentsAuthoritarian parents

– Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience, punish transgressionsobedience, punish transgressions

Authoritative parentsAuthoritative parents– Set high but realistic standards, reason with Set high but realistic standards, reason with

the child, enforce limits, and encourage the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independenceopen communication and independence

Permissive parentsPermissive parents– Make few rules or demands, allow children Make few rules or demands, allow children

to make their own decisions and control to make their own decisions and control their own behaviortheir own behavior


What outcomes are often What outcomes are often associated with the three associated with the three parenting styles identified by parenting styles identified by Baumrind?Baumrind? Children with Children with authoritative parentsauthoritative parents

– tend to be happier and have higher self-tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem, and be more self-reliant, socially esteem, and be more self-reliant, socially competent, and responsible than their peerscompetent, and responsible than their peers

Children with Children with authoritarian parentsauthoritarian parents – tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappytend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy

Children with Children with permissive parentspermissive parents – tend to be the most immature, impulsive, and tend to be the most immature, impulsive, and

dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-controlledcontrolled


How do social learning, How do social learning, cognitive developmental, and cognitive developmental, and gender-schema theorists gender-schema theorists explain gender role explain gender role development?development? Social learning theorySocial learning theory

– Gender role Gender role development results from development results from modeling and reinforcementmodeling and reinforcement

Cognitive developmental theoryCognitive developmental theory– Development occurs in stages marked by Development occurs in stages marked by

increasingly sophisticated reasoning about increasingly sophisticated reasoning about the permanence of genderthe permanence of gender

Gender-schema theoryGender-schema theory– Children acquire schemas for maleness Children acquire schemas for maleness

and femaleness from their culture and use and femaleness from their culture and use them to process information about genderthem to process information about gender


AdolescenceAdolescence

The developmental stage that The developmental stage that begins at puberty and begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning end of childhood to the beginning of adulthoodof adulthood


How does puberty influence How does puberty influence adolescents’ self-concepts and adolescents’ self-concepts and behavior?behavior? A period of rapid physical growth and A period of rapid physical growth and

change that culminates in sexual change that culminates in sexual maturitymaturity

Puberty and self-conceptPuberty and self-concept– Early maturation in boys is associated with Early maturation in boys is associated with

higher self-esteemhigher self-esteem But may also be associated with greater But may also be associated with greater

aggression and hostilityaggression and hostility

– Early maturation in girls is associated with Early maturation in girls is associated with higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, and earlier exposure to alcohol and drug useand earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use


How does puberty influence How does puberty influence adolescents’ self-concepts and adolescents’ self-concepts and behavior?behavior?

Incidence of sexual Incidence of sexual activity increases activity increases dramatically through dramatically through teen yearsteen years

Factors associated with Factors associated with later onset of sexual later onset of sexual activity includeactivity include

Living with both Living with both biological parentsbiological parents

Higher academic Higher academic achievementachievement

Involvement in sportsInvolvement in sports Frequent attendance of Frequent attendance of

religious servicesreligious services


In what ways do parents and In what ways do parents and peers contribute to teens’ peers contribute to teens’ development?development? Most adolescents have good Most adolescents have good

relationships with their parentsrelationships with their parents Parenting style affects adolescent Parenting style affects adolescent

behaviorbehavior– Permissive parenting is associated with Permissive parenting is associated with

higher incidence of drug and alcohol use and higher incidence of drug and alcohol use and lower motivation for academic success in lower motivation for academic success in adolescentsadolescents

– Authoritative parenting is associated with Authoritative parenting is associated with more psychological distress and lower self-more psychological distress and lower self-confidence in adolescentsconfidence in adolescents

Peer groups provide adolescents with Peer groups provide adolescents with standards of comparison and a vehicle standards of comparison and a vehicle for developing social skillsfor developing social skills


What are the neurological and What are the neurological and psychosocial characteristics of psychosocial characteristics of emerging adulthood?emerging adulthood?

Neuroimaging studies indicate that parts Neuroimaging studies indicate that parts of the brain involved in decision making of the brain involved in decision making and self control mature between the late and self control mature between the late teens and early twentiesteens and early twenties

Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that this age-Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that this age-range is a unique developmental period, range is a unique developmental period, which he calls which he calls emerging adulthoodemerging adulthood– A period when individuals explore options and A period when individuals explore options and

develop new skills in work and romantic develop new skills in work and romantic domains before committing to adult rolesdomains before committing to adult roles


Early and Middle Early and Middle AdulthoodAdulthood Early adulthood Early adulthood

– Ages 20 to 45 or 45Ages 20 to 45 or 45 Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood

– Ages 40 or 45 to 65Ages 40 or 45 to 65 Late adulthoodLate adulthood

– After age 65 or 70After age 65 or 70


How does the body change in How does the body change in the early and middle adult the early and middle adult years?years? PresbyopiaPresbyopia

– Lens of the eye can longer accommodate Lens of the eye can longer accommodate adequately for near visionadequately for near vision

– Occurs almost universally in mid to late 40sOccurs almost universally in mid to late 40s MenopauseMenopause

– Cessation of menstruation, signifying end Cessation of menstruation, signifying end of reproductive capacity in womenof reproductive capacity in women

– Usually occurs between 45 and 55Usually occurs between 45 and 55 Gradual decline in testosterone in menGradual decline in testosterone in men

– From age 20 until about 60From age 20 until about 60


In what ways does intellectual In what ways does intellectual capacity improve and decline in capacity improve and decline in adulthood?adulthood?

Young adults outperform older adults Young adults outperform older adults on tasks requiring speed or rote on tasks requiring speed or rote memorymemory

But older adults outperform younger But older adults outperform younger ones on tests measuring general ones on tests measuring general information, vocabulary, reasoning information, vocabulary, reasoning ability, and social judgmentability, and social judgment


What are two themes of social What are two themes of social development in early and development in early and middle adulthood?middle adulthood?

Establishment of an intimate Establishment of an intimate partnershippartnership– Majority of adults marry and have childrenMajority of adults marry and have children– But they do so at later ages today than in But they do so at later ages today than in

past generationspast generations Career developmentCareer development

– Job satisfaction is strongly related to Job satisfaction is strongly related to satisfaction with other aspects of life, such satisfaction with other aspects of life, such as romantic relationshipsas romantic relationships


Later AdulthoodLater Adulthood

The life expectancy in the United The life expectancy in the United States has increased from 49 to States has increased from 49 to 76 years from the beginning to 76 years from the beginning to the end of the 20th centurythe end of the 20th century

People older than age 65 People older than age 65 constitute about 15% of the U.S. constitute about 15% of the U.S. populationpopulation


How does the body change in How does the body change in the later adult years?the later adult years?

General slowingGeneral slowing, the reduction in the , the reduction in the speed of neural transmission leading to a speed of neural transmission leading to a slowing of physical and mental functionsslowing of physical and mental functions

Decline in sensory capacityDecline in sensory capacity Development of chronic conditions such Development of chronic conditions such

as arthritis, heart disease, high blood as arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressurepressure

But, physical exercise can improve But, physical exercise can improve strength and mobility in older adultsstrength and mobility in older adults


What happens to cognitive What happens to cognitive ability in later adulthood?ability in later adulthood?

Crystallized intelligenceCrystallized intelligence tends to tends to increase over the lifespanincrease over the lifespan– Verbal ability and accumulated knowledgeVerbal ability and accumulated knowledge

Fluid intelligenceFluid intelligence peaks in early 20s peaks in early 20s and declines slowly as people ageand declines slowly as people age– Reasoning and mental flexibilityReasoning and mental flexibility


What are some of the What are some of the adjustment challenges in the adjustment challenges in the social lives of older adults?social lives of older adults?

RetirementRetirement Loss of a spouseLoss of a spouse Altered living arrangementsAltered living arrangements Most older adults cope with these Most older adults cope with these

adjustments and maintain a sense of adjustments and maintain a sense of life satisfactionlife satisfaction


What are the components of What are the components of successful aging?successful aging?

Maintaining one’s physical health, Maintaining one’s physical health, mental abilities, social competence, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with lifeand overall satisfaction with life– An optimistic outlookAn optimistic outlook– Eating a healthy dietEating a healthy diet– Staying active cognitively and sociallyStaying active cognitively and socially


Death and DyingDeath and Dying

A developmental task for every A developmental task for every elderly person is to accept the elderly person is to accept the inevitability of death and to inevitability of death and to prepare for itprepare for it


How do individuals with How do individuals with terminal illnesses respond to terminal illnesses respond to their circumstances?their circumstances? Elisabeth KElisabeth Küübler-Ross identified 5 bler-Ross identified 5

stages people go through in coming to stages people go through in coming to terms with deathterms with death– DenialDenial– AngerAnger– BargainingBargaining– DepressionDepression– AcceptanceAcceptance

But, critics doubt the universality of But, critics doubt the universality of these stages, and argue that reactions these stages, and argue that reactions to impending death vary widely to impending death vary widely between individuals and across between individuals and across culturescultures

chapter 8

Education

parenting

ericksons

puberty influence

attachment

motor abilities

moral reasoning

kohlberg claim

moral development