CHAPTER 7

DAMAGE CONTROL

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

Describe the objectives of damage control.

Describe the damage control responsibilitiesof the commanding officer, executive officer,officer of the deck, division officer, damagecontrol petty officer, and work center damagecontrol petty officer.

Describe the damage control central organiza-tion.

Describe the assignments, responsibilities,and dress requirements of repair parties andteams.

Describe the duties and responsibilities of theon-scene leader.

Describe the duties of the at-sea fire party.

Describe the procedures used for investigatingflooding, structural damage, and fires.

Identify the classes of fire and extinguishingagents used in damage control.

Describe the methods used to prevent thespread of fires.

Describe the method used to control flooding.

Describe the two types of flooding.

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Identify the types of damage control com-munications.

Describe the purpose of and rules observedwhile administering first aid.

Describe the hazards involved in a nuclearweapons mishap incident.

Identify the sources of damage controlinformation.

Describe the hazards and non-nuclear effectsof a nuclear attack.

Describe the effects and types of radiationproduced by a nuclear attack.

Describe how biological warfare agents aredisseminated, detected, and identified.

Describe the characteristics and classificationsof chemical warfare agents.

Describe the effects of and treatment forchemical warfare agents.

Describe the objectives and phases of disastercontrol ashore.

Naval history is filled with instances thatillustrate the important role damage control hasplayed in naval operations. Ships have beendamaged where their survival seemed impossible.Yet, through gallant damage control efforts, theseships have recovered to fight again. For example,the USS Belknap (CG-26) survived a terrible

collision at sea (fig. 7-1) and recovered to serveagain. On too many other occasions, however,ships that should have been saved have been lostbecause of needless failures in damage controlpreparations and operations. It has been said thatif a ship survives the initial impact of damage,it has a good chance of being saved. Along with

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3.282.4Figure 7-1.—USS Belknap (CG-26).

confidence in the integrity of their ships, all repairparty personnel should have confidence in theirability to control all but the most devastatingdamage.

OBJECTIVES OFDAMAGE CONTROL

The three basic objectives of shipboard damagecontrol are PREVENTION, MINIMIZATION, andRESTORATION.

Prevention means to take all practicalpreliminary measures, such as maintaining water-tight and fumetight integrity, providing reservebuoyancy and stability, removing fire hazards, andmaintaining and distributing emergencyequipment before damage occurs.

Minimization is to minimize and localizedamage by taking measures to control flooding,preserve stability and buoyancy, combat fire, andprovide first-aid treatment to injured personnel.

Restoration is to accomplish, as quickly aspossible, emergency repairs or restorations afterthe occurrence of damage. Restoration requires

measures such as supplying casualty power,regaining a safe margin of stability and buoyancy,replacing essential structures, and manningessential equipment.

All members of the ship’s company shouldrealize the importance of their responsibilities.You should think of damage control as anoffensive as well as a defensive action upon whichyour ship’s ability to inflict damage on the enemymay depend. Damage control not only is concernedwith battle damage but also nonbattle damage.This includes damage from fire, collision,grounding, weather, and explosion. Damagecontrol action may be necessary in port as well asat sea and may involve the use of personnel andfacilities from an undamaged ship.

Damage control requires a detailed knowledgeof the ship’s construction, characteristics, com-partmentation, and stability, and of apparatusplaced on board to prevent or control damage.Basically, control of damage depends upon theability and the initiative of personnel to takeprompt corrective action, using readily availablematerial. Having a thorough knowledge of theship will enable personnel to take the necessarycorrective action.

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RESPONSIBILITIES

All members of the ship’s company shouldknow their damage control responsibilities andrealize the importance of damage control. Theimportance of efficient damage control cannot beoveremphasized. Damage control readiness canonly be achieved by a firm program stimulatedby effective and dynamic leadership. This programshould be executed by enthusiastic, well-trained,and determined officers and crew from alldepartments on board. While no area can befully covered, the basic responsibilities of keyindividuals in the damage control organization arestated in the following paragraphs.

Commanding Officer

Chapter 8, U.S. Navy Regulations,the various broad responsibilities ofmanding officer (CO). For example,must “maintain his or her commandof maximum effectiveness for war

delineatesthe com-he or shein a stateor other

service . . . . Immediately after a battle or action,repair damages so far as possible, [and] exert everyeffort to prepare the command for furtherservice . . . .”

To carry out this charge, the commandingofficer ensures the command is well trained andcontinually exercised in all aspects of damagecontrol. The commanding officer should be fullyaware of all of the ship’s weaknesses, includingthe adequacy and operability of all damagecontrol equipment.

Executive Officer

The executive officer (XO) keeps the commandadvised of the status of the ship’s damage controlreadiness. The executive officer carries out the re-quirements of command damage control training,including the ship’s readiness to combat allcasualties and damage caused by hostile acts orother occurrences.

Officer of the Deck

The officer of the deck (OOD) is the seniormember of the underway watch team and is theprimary assistant to the commanding officer onthe bridge. The OOD should be intimatelyfamiliar with the ship, its material condition, andestablished procedures for emergencies. The OODshould know and understand the correct courseof action, or options, for various damage control

situations. The OOD should be able to analyzea situation quickly and take prompt, positive,and correct counteraction. The OOD’s ability toreact properly and promptly will be directlyproportional to his or her knowledge of the ship,damage control procedures, equipment available,and training received.

Division Officer

The division officer is responsible for takingall practical preliminary measures before damageoccurs, such as maintenance of watertight and air-tight integrity, removal of fire hazards, andupkeep of emergency equipment. Division officersensure that all equipment, closures, and markingsunder their cognizance are kept in the best possiblecondition. This is done by periodic inspections,adherence to planned maintenance system (PMS)checks by division damage control petty officers(DDCPOs), and training of personnel within thedivision.

Damage Control Petty Officer

A qualified senior petty officer in each divisionis designated as damage control petty officer(DCPO). Section leaders of each section aredesignated as duty DCPOs outside of normalworking hours in port; they also perform theduties of the DCPO at some time during their tourof duty. Division officers notify the fire marshaland the damage control assistant (DCA) of DCPOand duty DCPO assignments and of any changesto these assignments. DCPOs should have receivedformal training and be qualified before assign-ment.

DCPOs normally serve for a period of 6months. They check in and out with the firemarshal and DCA upon being assigned to orreleased from such duties.

Duties and Responsibilities of the DCPO

The DCPO and duty DCPOs (duty sectionleaders) have the following duties andresponsibilities:

Being acquainted with all phases of the ship’sdamage control, fire-fighting, and defense pro-cedures

Assisting in the instruction of division person-nel in damage control, fire-fighting, and chemical,biological, and radiological (CBR) defense pro-cedures

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Ensuring the preparation and maintenance ofdamage control checkoff lists for all spaces assigned

Supervising the setting of specified damage controlmaterial conditions within division spaces and makingrequired reports

Weighing portable C02 bottles, inspecting and testingdamage control and fire-fighting equip-ment, andpreparing required reports for approval of the divisionofficer in following the current ship’s instruction

Ensuring all battle lanterns, dog wrenches, spanners,and other damage control equipment are in place and ina usable condition in all division spaces

Ensuring all compartments, piping, cables, anddamage control and fire-fighting equipment are properlystenciled or identified by color codes

Posting safety precautions and operating instructionsin required division spaces

Assisting the division officer in inspecting divisionspaces for cleanliness and preservation and assisting inthe preparation of required reports

Conducting daily inspections of division spaces for theelimination of fire hazards

Performing such other duties with reference todamage control and maintenance of division spaces asmay be directed by the division leading petty officer,division officer, fire marshal, and DCA

WORK CENTER DAMAGECONTROL PETTY OFFICER

Each work center will have a designated work centerdamage control petty officer (WCDCPO). WCDCPOs aresupervisors responsible for matters concerning damagecontrol within their work centers. They have basicallythe same duties and responsibilities as the DCPO butapply them to their respective work centers.

DAMAGE CONTROLORGANIZATION

The damage control administrative organiza-tion isan integral part of the engineering department.However, each department has major administrativeand preventive maintenance responsibilities to fulfill.

DAMAGE CONTROLBATTLE ORGANIZATION

The damage control battle organization includesdamage control central (DCC); repair parties for hull,propulsion, electronics, weapons, and air; and battledressing stations. Each person within the organizationmust be highly trained in all phases of damage control.Ships should be self-sufficient, and ship’s personnelshould be able to take positive action to control anydamage likely to occur. Provisions should be made forrelief of personnel engaged in arduous tasks, for battlemessing, and for transition from one condition ofreadiness to another. Positive,

COMMAND

ELECTRONICS PRIMARYDAMAGE AT-SEA ENGINEERING WEAPONS CAUSUALTY FLIGHTCONTROL FIRE PARTY (S) CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL

REPAIR 1 REPAIR 2 REPAIR 3 REPAIR 4 REPAIR 7 REPAIR 5 REPAIR 6 REPAIR 8

ORDANCE CRASH AND DISPOSAL SALVAGE TEAM TEAM

* MAINBATTLE CHAIN OF COMMAND

DRESSING - - - - - - - - - LIAISON/REPORTING AVIATION FUEL CONFLAGRATION REPAIR TEAM STATION

* BATTLE DRESSING STATIONS WILL VARY WITH DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SHIPS. APPLICABLE STATIONS FOR SPECIFIC SHIPS SHOULD BE DRAWN UNDER THE APPROPRIATE PARTY.

Figure 7-2.—Damage control battle organization chart.

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accurate, and rapid communications should takeplace between all damage control parties, fire-fightingparties, or similar groups so that overall coordinationof effort and direction can be accomplished. Theprimary damage control battle organization repairparties and teams are shown in figure 7-2.

The primary duty of the damage controlorganization is to control damage in order to keep theship fighting. Damage control objectives are attainedby taking the necessary action to do the following:

1. Preserve stability2. Preserve watertight integrity (buoyancy)3. Control list and trim4. Maintain effective segregation of vital systems5. Prevent, isolate, combat, extinguish, and

remove the effects of fire6. Detect, confine, and remove the effects of

nuclear, biological, and/or chemical attack7. Assist in the care of injured personnel8. Make rapid repairs to structures and

equipment

Ships designate one of the repair parties to act asSECONDARY DCC. The repair party designated assecondary DCC maintains status boards andcommunications logs identical to those maintained byDCC; it also directs control of damage in the eventDCC is unable to perform its function.

FUNCTIONS OF DAMAGECONTROL CENTRAL

Damage control central (DCC) is the hub of theship’s damage control efforts. It is organized to

coordinate control of all damage the ship may sufferin battle, and it keeps the commanding officeradvised of the capabilities of the ship after eachcasualty. It trains repair parties to operate andcontrol damage as independent units.

DCC personnel check all damage reports and thecorrective action being taken. DCC issues directionswhen repairs are not progressing satisfactorily,damage is beyond the capabilities of the personnelinvolved, advice is requested, or corrective action inprogress is incorrect.

DCC maintains status boards showing struc-turaldamage, location of flooding boundaries, condition ofpropulsion, condition of electrical and casualty powercircuits, and corrective actions taken.

REPAIR PARTIES AND TEAMS

Each ship will have at least one repair party.Some ships have as many as eight repair parties. Inaddition, larger ships may have an ordnance disposalteam, a crash and salvage team, or an aviation fuelrepair team. Each repair party will have an officer ora senior petty officer in charge. Composition of repairparties depends on the number of personnelavailable, type of ship, and area of responsibility. Arepair party organization chart is shown in figure 7-3. All repair parties should have the followingcapabilities:

• Making repairs to electrical and sound-powered telephone circuits.

FIRE FIGHTING DAMAGENO. GO EVALUATION FLOOD AND CONTROL NBC DEFENSE MISC ASSIG REMARKS

CLO AND COMM A B C SMOKE CONTROL REPAIR

NAME

Figure 7-3.—Repair party organization chart.7-5

Giving first aid and transporting injuredpersonnel to battle dressing stationswithout seriously reducing the damagecontrol capabilities of the repair party.

Detecting, identifying, and measuring doseand dose-rate intensities from radiation.Parties should also be capable of surveyingand decontaminating personnel and con-taminated areas. The only exception iswhen parties are specifically assigned todepartments with special requirements, asin the case of nuclear weapons accidentsand/or incidents.

Sampling and/or identifying biological orchemical agents. Parties should also becapable of decontaminating areas and per-sonnel affected as a result of biological orchemical attack. The only exception is whenthe medical department is responsible.

Controlling and extinguishing all types offires.

Evaluating and reporting correctly theextent of damage in-its area. This includesmaintaining the following graphic records:

—Graphic display boards showing damageand action taken to correct disrupted ordamaged systems

—Deck plans showing locations of CBRcontamination and the location and saferoutes to battle dressing and personnelcleansing stations

—A casualty board for visual display ofstructural damage

Repair Party Assignments

Division officers are responsible for assigningpersonnel to repair parties. Each repair party willhave a nucleus of experienced and mature person-nel. Repair party personnel obtain this experiencethrough the completion of special training pro-grams and personnel qualification standards(PQS). The DCA maintains a list of all personnelassigned to repair parties. The DCA also ensuresthat replacement personnel are properly trainedand that they attain PQS qualifications. Avoidmass repair party personnel reassignments, andreplace key repair party personnel on a contactrelief basis.

Dress Requirements for Repair Parties

While none of the available uniform fabricscurrently in use is considered protective clothing,it is a documented fact that parts of the body notcovered by some form of clothing suffer moresevere burns. A complete working uniform, toinclude a round neck tee shirt, should be wornby all personnel engaged in repair party activities.Roll down and button shirt sleeves, button shirtcollars, and tuck trousers into socks. Uniformsof polyester double knit and 100-percent polyestershould not be worn by personnel engaged in repairparty activities. Additional items of protectiveequipment should be worn as follows:

Life jackets of the inflatable type shouldbe issued and worn in the pouch. Kapoklife jackets should be readily available ator near the repair locker for those repairparties not issued inflatable life jackets.Personnel assigned oxygen breathing ap-paratus (OBA) duty may omit wearing alife jacket while wearing the OBA.

Issue protective headgear (battle helmetwith liner) to repair parties.

Protective masks, preadjusted for immediateuse, in the carrying case. Personnel assignedOBA duty may omit carrying a protectivemask while wearing the OBA.

Setting Material Condition Zebra

Material condition Zebra is used for maximumprotection in battle. During general quarters,personnel in manned spaces are responsible forsetting condition Zebra in those spaces, includingall accesses to those spaces. Repair parties areresponsible for all other Zebra fittings. DCCcoordinates the setting of condition Zebra forX-ray and yoke fittings that previously werelogged open in the damage control closure log.Condition Zebra is first set on the fire main,drainage, freshwater, and ventilation systems.Access fittings should be closed starting with thelower decks and proceeding to those on higherdecks. Condition Zebra is not fully set until allX-ray and yoke fittings are checked out.

Each unit leader will report “manned andready” to the repair locker officer when sufficientpersonnel are in the area to carry out their duties.It is not necessary to have all personnel presentto report manned and ready. When condition

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Zebra has been set in assigned areas, each unitwill report “Zebra set” to the repair locker leader.Each repair locker officer will compile “mannedand ready” and Zebra reports and report attain-ment status to damage control central. In anactual casualty immediate damage control actionmay be necessary. In this case unit leaders shouldreport manned and ready as soon as possible.

REPAIR PARTY ORGANIZATIONFOR FIRE FIGHTING

Repair parties provide the only personnelimmediately available to fight fires during action.Therefore, deciding upon a plan of action forrepair parties, before action, is essential.

All repair parties must be thoroughlyindoctrinated and properly trained to carryout such plans of action. Valuable time wouldbe lost if the method of fire fighting wasnot decided until the fire was actually underway.No matter how well your people are trainedin the use of equipment, if they are not trainedto act as a team following definite plans,confusion will result. This confusion may beshort lived, but it will interfere with fire-fightingefforts.

Divide large repair parties into fire-fightinggroups. Where possible, organize at least twogroups or teams from each repair party. Trainthese groups so any member can quickly under-take any of the detailed duties as circumstanceswarrant. Each team member should know thecorrect starting position in the event of a fire,flooding, or a major casualty as assigned by thewatch, quarter, and station (WQS) bill. Maximumuse of PQS will assist in training your teams tobe competent, flexible repair parties. Table 7-1shows the minimum acceptable duty damagecontrol party assignments for fire and collision/flooding duties.

BATTLE DRESSING STATIONS

Most ships have a minimum of two battledressing stations equipped for emergency handlingof battle casualties. These stations should bewell separated from each other and accessible tostretcher bearers from repair parties in the vicinity.These stations will be manned with medicaldepartment personnel. The medical departmentshould also provide first-aid boxes for personnelin battle stations.

Table 7-1.—Minimum Acceptable Duty Damage ControlParty

ON-SCENE LEADER

The on-scene leader takes charge of the repairof damage at the immediate scene and is directlyin charge of the fire-fighting party. The firstduty of the on-scene leader is to get to the fireor damage quickly to investigate and evaluate thesituation. When the nature of the fire or damagehas been determined, the on-scene leader informsthe repair party leader, who informs DCC. Theon-scene leader is responsible for directing effortsto control the fire or damage at the scene. Laterdevelopments may require the use of different oradditional equipment, but the on-scene leadermust decide what equipment to use first. Theon-scene leader must ensure that personnelobserve all safety precautions and standardprocedures in the performance of all phases ofdamage control. The on-scene leader is theassistant repair party leader and is in charge ofthe repair locker in the absence of the repairparty leader. To be an on-scene leader, you shouldbe qualified in investigation, fire fighting, anddamage control repair.

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Table 7-2.—At-Sea Fire Party

AT-SEA FIRE PARTY

Commanding officers may organize an at- seafire party either as a standing organization or aspart of a special detail. As an on-scene leader youmay be placed in charge of the at-sea fire party.The at-sea fire party may be formed intact as arepair party or unit or may be composed ofmembers of the various repair parties. A standingat-sea fire party will respond to all fires occurringat sea except when the ship is already at generalquarters. If the at-sea fire party is at the scene ofa fire when general quarters is sounded, it willremain at the scene until relieved. The purposeof the at-sea fire party is to

respond immediately to fire alarms whenrepair parties are not manned,

extinguish small fires effectively withoutdisrupting other ships’ operations, and

control fire until ongoing sensitive criticalevolutions can be terminated and generalquarters stations can be manned andready.

At-sea fire parties will normally consist of thepersonnel shown in table 7-2. Variations areauthorized if required by the needs of a particularship. The DCA is responsible for the organizationand training of the at-sea fire party.

When the fire alarm is sounded, the at-sea fireparty will proceed from the closest repair lockerto the scene of the fire. Scene leaders will weara steel helmet painted red and marked front andback with l-inch black lettering identifying the

repair party (II, III, etc.). The lower circum-ference of the helmet will have three 1-inchhorizontal stripes of reflective tape in white,red, white. No other member of a repair, damagecontrol, or rescue and assistance party will weara similarly marked helmet or one that could bemistaken for a scene leader.

INVESTIGATING DAMAGE

As an on-scene leader you should be qualifiedas an investigator. Four principles of investiga-tion should be considered in your investigationof damage:

1. An investigation must be thorough.2. It must be conducted with caution.3. Results must be reported clearly and

quickly.4. Investigations must be repeated.

Ships have been lost and others have sufferedunnecessary damage because investigating person-nel have neglected one or more of these fourprinciples.

Investigation Teams

Each repair locker and unit has at least fourinvestigators, with OBA tenders organized intotwo-man teams and assigned specific areas forinvestigation. If an area has extensive damage,form additional teams. Equip each investigatorwith an OBA. An investigator’s kit containing asounding tape and deck drain wrench is providedby the OBA tender. If an investigator must entera space alone, the OBA tender must man atendering line secured to the D ring on the backof the investigator’s OBA.

Initial/Rapid Survey

Initial indications should be recognized andevaluated quickly to give DCC an accurateestimate of the extent of damage. Investigatesymptoms of dangerous conditions, such as aminor loss of power, a wisp of smoke, droppingpressure, or excessive warmth of a bulkhead, andtake prompt corrective action. You should alsoprovide details on casualties that interfere withrepairing or limiting damage, such as absence oflight or ventilation and the presence of smoke,flammable liquids, wreckage, or loose stores.

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Repeat/Detailed Investigation

Although a compartment has been inspectedand is free of fire and flooding, you should notassume it is secure; it must be reinspected. A firecan break out from undetected damage to anelectrical circuit or from a hot splinter buried incombustible materials. Flooding may be causedby open or partly open valves, especially ifintervening watertight boundaries fail. The initial/rapid investigation is a preliminary inspection. Adetailed investigation is made as soon as possibleand in greater detail. This investigation should bethorough; otherwise, the extent of secondary orminor damage could go undetected. Sound allcompartments, tanks, and voids adjacent to theoriginal point of damage to determine penetrationand flooding. Make detailed investigations ofevery compartment after every hit, particularlyany compartment which lies within 50 feet of thepoint of impact. (Fifty feet is the nominal distancefrom the point of impact that damage shouldspread if the underwater protective system isinitially intact.) If any compartment on theperimeter of this 50-foot arc shows the presenceof water, extend the investigation beyond theoriginally estimated levels until an intact water-tight boundary is determined.

Investigation for Flooding

As a general rule, complete flooding of acompartment or flooding to sea level indicates thata compartment is open to the sea. Flooding to alesser height may indicate that the puncture isrelatively small or that progressive flooding isoccurring. Although progressive flooding can beverified by subsequent soundings, the general ruledoes not always hold true. In more than one case,an unisolated saltwater line leading through asecured compartment has been ruptured and hascaused the space to become completely floodedwithout direct access to the sea. Such a conditionis even more dangerous than a penetration of thehull because, in time, the pressure within thecompartment could reach 100 pounds or more andcause previously undamaged bulkheads tocollapse.

Investigation for Structural Damage

Investigation for structural damage shouldcover a considerable area surrounding theimmediate scene of damage not only on the samelevel as the principal casualty but also one

level above and below it. You should look forsuch items as splinter holes, ruptured pipelines,warped or fractured frames or stanchions, cracks,open seams, leaky stuffing tubes, bent shafts,improperly closed fittings, and severed electricalcables. You should note and quickly report anydamaged bulkheads that require shoring. Circuitbreakers and electrical measuring instrumentsmounted on switchboards may give informationon structural damage. When a circuit breaker tripsin battle, it may be an indication of physical shockor of an overload caused by damaged cables orequipment. Hot bearings on motors and hotelectrical cables may also be indications ofstructural damage. Identify and report the circuitsor equipment quickly.

Investigation for Fires

An investigation for fires should not onlydetect fires but imminent causes of fires. Youshould look for items such as smoke; warmbulkheads, hatches, or decks; peeling paint andtile; arcing wires; hot/jammed watertight doorsand hatches; and loss of lighting. These symptomsnormally indicate that a fire is present. Inaddition you should inspect for spilled or rupturedfuel or flammable liquid tanks and containers;wreckage; loose stores; and broken or damagedelectrical controllers, power panels, and switches.These items are potential causes for secondaryfires.

Reporting Information

You should use message blanks to report yourfindings to the repair party leader. Then the repairparty leader will correlate and evaluate theinformation and pass it to the parent repairparty and DCC. Local leaders should evaluate theinformation and take immediate steps to isolatedamaged systems, to attack casualties in the mostlogical manner, and to provide the correct equip-ment to meet the emergency. DCC will passessential information to the commanding officerconcerning casualties, their extent, their effectson the ship’s remaining buoyancy and stability,and their probable effects.

After a casualty occurs, the repair party mayappear to spend the first hour investigatingdamage and too little time localizing the damageor effecting repairs. This is not true; much of thedamage is obvious within a few minutes. With awell-indoctrinated damage control organization,only a small number of people are required to

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24.99Figure 7-4.—Flight deck fire, USS Enterprise (CVN-65).

devote their entire time to investigative work. Theremaining people in the repair party are able tostart remedial action immediately.

Benefits of Investigation

The first two steps in handling a casualty areto put out fires and control flooding. However,without adequate investigation, no one knowswhat types and quantities of material must beprovided at the scene, which electric circuits orpipelines must be isolated, and which partiallyflooded compartments can be made watertight andpumped dry. For example, as the result of a properinvestigation, a repair locker or unit could stopprogressive flooding in six compartmentscontaining holes that could be plugged in

several minutes. Without an investigation, theunit might waste the same amount of timeattempting an impossible repair on one leak.

FIRE FIGHTING

Whether a battle casualty is caused by a bomb,torpedo, or projectile hit, fire is a common result(fig. 7-4). Unless the fire is quickly extinguished,more serious damage than that caused by theinitial explosion may develop. The process of fire isa three-component chemical reaction requiringfuel, heat, and oxygen. You control and extinguishfires by eliminating one of these components. Firesare classified by type of fuel, as shown in table 7-3.Methods of extinguishing a fire are shown in table7-4.

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Table 7-3.—Classification of Fires

Class A—Fires in ordinary combustible materials such as mattresses, dunnage, wood, canvas, and paper.

Class B—Fires in substances such as gasoline, fuel oil, lubricating oil, diesel oil, and paints.

Class C—Fires in electrical equipment.

Class D—Fires in metals such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, zirconium, powdered aluminum, zinc, and others which require careful fire attack with special methods and extinguishing agents.

Table 7-4.—Fire-fighting Methods.

USEFUL EXTINGUISHINGCOMBUSTIBLE INVOLVED TYPE FIRE AGENTS

Woodwork, bedding, clothing, combustible A 1. Fixed water sprinkling stores 2. High-velocity fog

3. Solid water stream4. Foam/AFFF5. Dry Chemical6. CO2 Extinguisher

Explosive A 1. Magazine sprinklingPropellants 2. Solid water stream or high-velocity fog

3. Foam/AFFF

Paint, spirits B 1. CO2 (Fixed System)Flammable liquid stores 2. Foam/AFFF

3. Installed sprinklers4. High-velocity fog5. P-K-P Dry Chemical6. CO2 Portable

Gasoline B 1. Foam/AFFF, handline or sprinkler systems2. CO2 (Fixed System)3. Water sprinkling system4. P-K-P Dry Chemical

Fuel oil, JP-5 B 1. Foam/AFFF, handline or sprinkler systems2. P-K-P Dry Chemical3. Water sprinkling system4. High-velocity fog5. CO2 (Fixed System)

Electrical and radio C 1. (De-energize affected circuits)2. Portable CO2 or CO2 hose reel system3. High-velocity fog4. Fog—Foam or Dry Chemical (if CO2 not available)

Magnesium Alloys D 1. Jettison into the sea2. High-velocity fog—cool3. Dry Sand—Talc—Smother

Grenades, Napalm D 1. Dry sodium Chloride2. Stow in kerosene or similar Hydrocarbon

The above extinguishing agents are listed in the order of their preferred use for each fire substance. They act in the followingmanner: (1) Solid Water Stream—wetting, penetrating, and cooling (2) Water Fog—wetting, cooling, and shielding (3) Foam—permanent smothering (4) CO2—temporary smothering (5) P-K-P Dry Chemical—temporary smothering.

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Initial Fire-Fighting Operations

In fire-fighting operations, you must firstdetermine the location and type of fire and thendetermine the method of extinguishing the fire,as shown in table 7-4. For complicated orsimultaneous fires, fog will serve in nearly everysituation. In case of a class C fire, first de-energizeall circuits where possible. Next, establish fireboundaries by cIosing all doors, hatches, man-holes, ventilation ducts, and other vents in thearea as practical and de-energize power asnecessary.

CO2 Safety Precautions

You must be aware that the very qualities thatmake carbon dioxide (CO2) a valuable ex-tinguishing agent also make it dangerous to life.When CO2 replaces oxygen in the air wherecombustion cannot be sustained, there is norespiration. Prolonged exposure to carbon dioxidecauses suffocation, very much as immersion inwater does when a person drowns. CO2 cannotbe seen or smelled. It gives no evidence of itspresence that can be recognized by the senses.Since CO2 is heavier than air, it remains close tothe surface of the space in a deep or shallow pool,depending on the amount of area covered and theamount of CO2 used. When a portable carbondioxide extinguisher is used, there is practicallyno breathing danger in the average compartmentbecause its 135 cubic feet of CO2 lies in a shallowpool well below the usual breathing level.

When entering a compartment that containscarbon dioxide (or any other harmful gas) in adangerous concentration, you must wear an OBA.

Except in an emergency, you should not opena CO2 flooded compartment for at least 15minutes after it has been flooded. This delay isa precautionary measure to give all the burningsubstances time to cool down below their ignitiontemperature; this prevents reignition upon contactwith air.

Warn anyone who uses a carbon dioxide ex-tinguisher that the “snow” will blister the skinand cause painful burns if it is allowed to remainon the skin.

Discharge of CO2 leads to a buildup of a staticelectrical charge. You should keep the cylinder incontact (grounded) with the metal structure of theship when discharging CO2.

Halon 1301 Hazards

The mechanism by which Halon 1301 ex-tinguishes a fire is not thoroughly understood. Thephenomenon appears to be a physical/chemicalaction that inhibits combustion. Halon 1301 hasthe ability to extinguish both the flammableliquid spill and spray types of fire. Halon 1301decomposes upon contact with flames or hotsurfaces above 900°F (482°C). While this decom-position allows the Halon 1301 to functioneffectively, it also results in the formationof several decomposition products, primarilyhydrogen fluoride and hydrogen bromide.

Fuel decomposition products, carbon monoxide,oxygen depletion, heat, and smoke create person-nel hazards. Personnel should not remain in aspace where Halon 1301 has been released toextinguish a fire unless OBAs are worn. Althoughpersonnel can be exposed to concentrations of 5to 7 percent of Halon 1301 for up to 10 minuteswithout danger to health, spaces should still beevacuated upon accidental discharge.

If Halon 1301 is discharged where no fireexists, several hazards may arise. For example,noise from the discharge can be startling;turbulence may be sufficient to move light objects;direct contact with the vaporizing liquid may havea strong chilling effect and can cause frostbite andburns to the skin; and obscured vision may resultbecause of condensation of water vapor in the air.If you are in a space where Halon 1301 is dis-charged and vision is obscured, do not moveabout until vision improves. Moving blindly couldresult in injuries.

Preventing Spreading of Fires

In fighting a fire, you should secure anybreaches in bulkheads adjacent to the fire. Also,be sure to cool adjacent bulkheads. Remove anycombustibles from nearby compartments orrender the compartments safe by one or more ofthe following methods:

Cool or smother compartments with fog.

Fill compartments with CO2.

Flood compartments as practical.

Postfire Action

Start postfire action while fire fighting is stillin progress. As the on-scene leader you should

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have all necessary postfire equipment at the sceneby the time the fire is out. This equipment shouldinclude axes, rakes, cutting torches, an oxygenanalyzer, an explosimeter. You should

• set the reflash watch with a chargedhose manned and ready to extinguish anyflare-up of the fire;

• test the compartment for explosive gasesand oxygen content, in that order;

• overhaul the fire, breaking up any areaswhere danger of smoldering embers exists;

• retest the compartment for explosive gases;and then

• desmoke and retest again.

FLOODING CONTROL

One of the most important damage controlmeasures is to control flooding. Drainage by fixedsystems or portable pumps is ineffective inhandling flooding caused by damage until the rateof flooding has been controlled. The entirepumping capacity of the drainage systems issufficient to care for flooding only when the leaksare small. A hole in the hull, with an area ofonly 1 square foot, 15 feet below the surface, willadmit water at 13,900 gallons per minute (gpm).The total pumping capacity of the fixed drainagesystems in a large combatant ship, for example,is only 12,200 gpm.

All pumping facilities cannot be used on anysingle flooded compartment. Therefore, it isessential that you isolate compartments floodedby underwater damage by watertight subdivisionsbefore dewatering efforts can be successful.

Basically, two methods can be used in thecontrol of flooding: (1) restrict or entirely stopthe flow of water entering the hull and (2) confineand remove water that has entered or is stillentering the ship.

Preparatory Measures to ResistFlooding Before Damage

It has been wisely said that 90 percent of thework of damage control—the important part-is accomplished before damage and only about10 percent after the ship has been hit. Mostpreparatory work consists of measures taken totoughen the ship to resist flooding.

An important first step is for all personnelconcerned with damage control to learn whatfeatures have been designed into their ship toenable it to resist flooding. The most significantof these features is the extent and type of vesselsubdivision. The subdivision of the vessel willdetermine the extent and type of flooding that canoccur and the type of corrective measures neededafter damage. The DCA, repair party officers,and repair party leaders should also know theextent to which bulkheads adjacent to damage canbe submerged before uncontrolled flooding arises.

To combat flooding successfully, you needspeed and accuracy. To be effective in applyingcorrective measures, damage control personnelshould be familiar with the equipment providedto control list and trim and to improve stability.

All hands should learn the general effects ofa torpedo hit or other underwater damage to theirship. Since a single hit may wipe out entire repairparties or possibly carry away the damage controlcentral station, ships may have to depend on otherthan repair parties to confine the flooding, tofight fire, and so forth. More important, vesselshave been lost because personnel escaping fromdamaged areas left doors and hatches open behindthem, thus permitting rapid spread of loose water.All hands should be trained to confine floodingby securing doors and hatches, lest stabilityefforts be too little or too late.

Certain material preparations are vital intoughening the ship to resist flooding. Theyinclude

• maintaining watertight integrity of theship’s subdivision,

• properly classifying closures and fittings,

• properly setting material conditions ofclosure, and

• providing adequate and well-distributedoperable damage control equipment.

Types of Flooding

There are two major types of flooding: solidand partial.

SOLID. — If your ship has received severeunderwater damage, compartments will be badlyruptured and completely flooded. Little ornothing can be done to correct this damage.Isolate the compartments to permit concentration

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on compartments that can be repaired to preventprogressive flooding. Solid flooding refers to acompartment that is completely filled from deckto overhead. To be able to flood solidly, acompartment must be vented. Venting can takeplace through an air escape, an open scuttle ora ventilation fitting, or fragment holes in theoverhead. Solid flooding has no other effect thanto add weight at the center of gravity of the ship.

PARTIAL. —Compartments that are onlypartially flooded because their outboard bulk-heads contain small holes, cracks, loose rivets,broken seams, or splinter holes allow progressiveflooding to take place. If nothing is done aboutthese holes, the ship will take on more and morewater. The ship will lose buoyancy and list or trimstability. Partial flooding refers to a condition inwhich an intact compartment is not completelyflooded. An “intact compartment” means thatthe deck on which the water rests and thebulkheads that surround it remain watertight. Ifthe boundaries remain intact, water will neitherrun into nor out of the flooded compartment asthe ship rolls. The final result of partial floodingis usually a decided loss in overall stability.

Establishing Flooding Boundaries

Flooding boundaries are the bulkheads anddecks restricting the partially flooded area fromthe flooding boundary. If partially floodedcompartments become completely flooded, theflooding boundaries may not hold. There may behidden cracks or leaky stuffing tubes or thebulkheads may not be able to withstand thepressure put on them. In other words, just becausea flooding boundary seems safe one minute is nosign that it will be safe the next. Therefore, repairparty personnel should keep on reinspecting andshould make sure the boundary holds (even so faras to add shoring if bulkhead or overhead strengthis in question).

Holding What You Have

Many ships have been sunk during battleaction, but very few of them have gone down asa direct result of initial damage. Most of themhave gone down hours later as a result of pro-gressive flooding, fire, collapsing bulkheads,increased free surface, and human errors. Hadflooding and fire boundaries been establishedwhen and where it was possible to do so and thedamage confined to its original area, even thoughthe area was large, many of those ships would stillbe afloat and fit to fight. The moral is HOLD

WHAT YOU HAVE; DO EVERYTHING POSSI-BLE TO PREVENT PROGRESSIVE FLOODINGAND BURNING. It is natural to attack theobvious damage while completely ignoring hiddendamage that may sink the ship. Hours are oftenwasted trying to patch large or multiple holes incompartments that are already flooded. Smallerholes through interior bulkheads (holes which arecausing progressive flooding) are overlooked. Inmany cases, plugging those interior holes firstwould be far better in order to HOLD WHATYOU HAVE.

Holes in Underwater Hull

Large holes in the underwater hull, such asthose caused by torpedoes, contact mines, or near-miss bombs, cannot be repaired by a ship inbattle. A dry dock is required for such repairs.Large sections of hull plating are destroyed,flooding is complete and extensive, and theamount of wreckage is tremendous.

As you investigate the damage, you may cometo a bulkhead that has only small holes in it, suchas cracked plates or seams, warped hatches, leakystuffing tubes, or holes made by blast or byflying debris. Such leaks should be treated as smallholes in the underwater hull. By plugging thoseholes, you can localize flooding and preservebuoyancy. If you remove the water from thecompartments you made watertight, you canbegin to minimize the damage. For example,plugging leaks in bulkheads of a boiler room andclearing the space of water would help minimizedamage. Small holes in the underwater hull oftenresult from near-miss bombs or from violentexplosions in some other part of the ship. For ex-ample, a torpedo explosion forward may damageshell plating on the quarters and cause cracks.Cracks may also result from stresses produced bysteaming at high speeds in heavy seas.

Two factors that make repairing underwaterholes rather difficult are water pressure andaccessibility.

Rate of Flooding

It makes no difference whether the hole ismade by a shell, a torpedo, a bomb splinter, adefective gasket, or an unpacked stuffing tube;if one side of the hole is submerged, water willflow through it. The amount of water that comesinto a ship through the hole or flows from onecompartment to the next varies directly with thearea of the hole and the square root of its depth.Table 7-5 is a chart for determining the flow ofwater through holes in gallons per minute.

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Table 7-5.—Chart for Determining Flow of Water Through Holes in Gallons Per Minute

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You can control flooding by jettisoning equip-ment, using submersible pumps, and forming abucket brigade (if other methods fail).

Methods Used to Control Flooding

Several readily available methods that do notcall for elaborate tools or training can be used toplug or patch holes to control flooding. Theserepairs are temporary and will not be watertight.If the inflow of water can be reduced by as littleas 50 percent, flooding may be controllable withportable pumps.

The simplest method of repairing a fairly smallhole is to insert some kind of plug. Each repairlocker has a large assortment of conical, square-ended, and wedge-shaped wooden plugs. Neverpaint these plugs because unpainted wood absorbswater and grips better than painted wood. Ifpossible, wrap plugs with lightweight cloth to helpthem grip better. Roll up pillows and mattressesand shove them into holes but this action shouldbe backed up with some type of patch or shoring.Plate patches are commonly used types of patches.They are made from tables; doors; deck plates;or any relatively strong, flat material. Ordinarygalvanized buckets can be used in a variety ofways to stop leaks; for example, you can pushthem into a hole to form a metal plug and heldin place by shores.

We have mentioned just a few of the thingsyou can use to control flooding. When all thumbrules and experience have been exhausted, yourtask is to use your own ingenuity to findsomething that works.

Holes in Hull Above the Waterline

Holes in the hull at or just above the waterlinemay not appear to be very dangerous, but theyare. They destroy reserve buoyancy; and if yourship rolls in a heavy sea or loses buoyancy, thoseholes become submerged and admit water at avery dangerous level—above the center of gravity.That reduces stability; and because the wateralmost invariably presents a large, free surface (itshifts with ship movement), it becomes doublydangerous. Therefore, plug those holes at once.Give high priority to holes near the waterline.Above-water holes present another hazard: theypermit light to leak out at night. This light maydisclose your position to the enemy.

Sources of Damage Control Information

Much information of utmost importance tothe effective operation of a damage controlorganization exists in other publications and is,of necessity, omitted from this chapter. Thesepublications are of particular interest to those incharge of the damage control efforts and areavailable for study on board each ship. Inaddition to studying the publications listed intable 7-6, key members of the damage controlorganization should attend damage control schools.These schools teach both theoretical and practicalaspects of damage control problems. The DCAshould maintain a damage control library con-taining, as a minimum, the publications listed intable 7-6. It should be available to all divisions.

DAMAGE CONTROLCOMMUNICATIONS

Communications are a vital part of thedamage control system. Without proper com-munications between the various repair partiesand DCC, the entire damage control system couldbreak down and cause the loss of the ship. As ascene leader, you are responsible for ensuring thatpersonnel are able to follow correct proceduresfor using damage control circuits. Phone talkersmust be knowledgeable about the stations withwhich they communicate. Inexperienced person-nel should not use the phones. Repair party phonetalkers and messengers should complete theapplicable section of Repair Party PQS for phonetalkers.

The normal means of communications aboardship are as follows:

Battle telephone circuits (sound powered)

Interstation two-way systems (intercoms)

Ship’s loud speaker system (general an-nouncing)

Ship’s service telephones

Voice tubes (where installed)

Messengers

Sound-powered telephones are the primarymeans of communications during battle or whilecombating damage. The 2JZ circuit is the main

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Table 7-6.—Sources of Damage Control Information

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damage control circuit and is common to thedamage control station and all repair parties. Itconnects DCC with repair parties II, III, and V.The 3, 4, 5, 6, and even 7JZ circuits are individualrepair party circuits connecting each repair partystation with its auxiliary station and patrol area.

The following are some of the other typicalsound-powered circuits:

JA (Captain’s battle circuit) Connectsconn, pilot house, interior communica-tions (IC) room, combat informationcenter (CIC), and damage control central(DCC)

JV (Maneuvering circuit) Connects pilothouse, bridge wings, main engine control,forecastle, fantail, steering gear room, ICroom, and DCC

2JV (Engineer’s circuit) Connects allmachinery spaces, engineer log room, ICroom, emergency diesel generator space,main distribution switchboards, smokewatch, fueling station, and DCC

X-40J (Casualty communication circuit)Provides a means of rigging communica-tion lines between vital stations during anemergency condition

The 4MC circuit is the damage control intercomsystem. It provides two-way communicationsbetween DCC and the repair stations. It alsoprovides communications from repair lockers totheir respective unit patrol areas by means ofremote units powered through the call switcheson the repair lockers’ intercom unit.

Ship’s service telephones are available for usewhere they are installed near repair stations. Donot place too much reliance on them, as they maygo out of commission early in the action.

The ship’s general announcing system is ameans of communications, but so many stationsare affected that it should only be used when allother methods fail.

When all other means of communicationshave failed, you can use messengers. Trainmessengers to relay oral orders informationwithout error, even though written messages aremore reliable. See Military Requirements for PettyOfficer Third Class, NAVEDTRA 12044, for adiscussion on messengers.

For more in-depth information on sound-powered telephone procedures and the correct

terminology, refer to Naval Ships’ TechnicalManual, chapter 470; Basic Military Require-ments, NAVEDTRA 12043, chapter 21; andSound-Powered Phone Talkers Manual, NAV-PERS 14005-A.

PERSONNEL CASUALTY CONTROL

First aid is the emergency treatment of the sickor injured before regular medical or surgicalattention can be obtained. In this section we willonly give you basic rules. For more detailedinformation on treatment, refer to Basic MilitaryRequirements, NAVEDTRA 12043. First aid doesnot take the place of proper medical attention.It only provides assistance to the injured untilproper medical care can be obtained. The purposeof first aid is to

1. save life,2. prevent further injury, and3. preserve resistance and vitality.

When providing first aid to injured person-nel, be sure to follow these rules:

1. Keep the patient lying down, head level,until the injuries have been determined.

2. Examine the patient for cessation ofbreathing, hemorrhage, and evidence of shock.These conditions take precedence in this orderover everything else and demand immediatetreatment.

3. Remove clothing to determine the extentof the injury. Rip or cut the clothing along theseams, Removing clothing in the normal mannermay compound the injury, especially in fractures.Do not remove too much clothing; exposure tocold may bring on the condition of shock.

4. Remain calm. Act quickly but efficiently.Determine which of the patient’s injuries needsattention first, and then determine the proposedcourse of action.

5. Keep the patient comfortable. This can bedone while the patient’s injuries are being treated.A blanket may do the patient as much good asthe dressing applied to his wounds. Keep theinjured person warm enough to maintain normalbody temperature.

6. Do not allow the patient to see the injury.Assure the patient that the injuries are understoodand that good care will be given. Such things areimportant in keeping a patient calm and preventingshock.

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7. Keep open wounds and burns as clean aspossible. Avoid touching open wounds and burnswith your hands or unsterile objects unless nosterile dressings are available.

8. Do not try to give liquids to an un-conscious person.

9. Never give morphine to an unconsciousperson.

10. Do not move a patient until the extent ofthe injuries has been determined.

NUCLEAR WEAPONSACCIDENT/INCIDENT

Nuclear weapons systems have built-in safetyfeatures and are governed by safety rules duringall operational phases. As a senior petty officer,you must recognize, however, that hazards doexist. You must know what to do in the event ofa nuclear weapon accident/incident.

In the United States, nuclear weapons maybetransported by aircraft, trucks, trains, or navalships. In each case, weapons and components areinstalled in special containers that are securelyfastened to the transport vehicle by carefullydesigned tie-downs and mountings. Becauseprincipal methods and procedures related tonuclear weapons accident/incidents are classified,only basic information will be covered here.More detailed information can be found in theRepair Party Manual (COMNAVSURFLANTINST3541.lC/COMNAVSURFPACINST 3541.4B).

Even though nuclear weapons are designed toprevent a nuclear yield in the event of accidentaldetonation, a possible hazard is still associatedwith conventional weapons and material. The twocomponents of a nuclear weapon that constitutethe most probable hazard in the case of anaccident are high explosives and plutonium.

HIGH EXPLOSIVES

Most nuclear weapons contain high explosivesin varying amounts of up to 200 pounds. Thesehigh explosives present a major hazard. Treataccidents or fires involving nuclear weaponsthe same as those involving conventional highexplosives. If a nuclear weapon is involvedin a fire, the high explosives could detonate.Detonation may be very small or of considerablemagnitude. If a nuclear weapon accident occurs,only personnel trained in high-explosive disposalshould attempt to clean up, recover, or disposeof the high explosives.

PLUTONIUM

Plutonium may become dispersed as smallparticles as the result of impact, detonation of thehigh explosives, or by smoke if a fire occurs.Plutonium is a hazard only if it enters the body.When small particles of plutonium are suspendedin the air, the particles can be inhaled into thelungs or swallowed. Plutonium particles may alsoenter the body through cuts in the skin.

RESPONSE TO A NUCLEARWEAPON ACCIDENT/INCIDENT

Execute a shipboard nuclear accident/incidentin the same manner as any shipboard generalemergency. In port, if less than the entire crewis aboard and if the situation warrants, soundgeneral quarters. Sound general quarters at seaand the appropriate repair locker/damage controlteam takes charge. If you are the first person onthe scene, pass the alarm; then rig any availablefire hose and start cooling the warhead with highvelocity water fog. Do not use foam on warheads,as it acts as an insulator and causes heatretention rather than cooling.

If you are caught in the area of a fire or anexplosion, obtain some type of respiratoryprotection, even if it is a handkerchief placed overthe nose and mouth. An explosion may result inscattered, burned, or melted explosives in thearea. High explosives in this form are especiallysusceptible to shock or movement. They may berecognized by their tan or buff color in theiroriginal form, a pink color when fused, or a whitepowdery appearance when burned. Remember,stay away from high explosives.

CBR DEFENSE

CBR defense is defined as all damage controland personnel protective measures used to combat/minimize the effects of chemical, biological, orradiological attack. CBR defense measures maybe invoked to counter a direct enemy attack orto counter the effects of the use of CBR weaponsby friendly forces in defending themselves.

In studying CBR defense, remember that newapproaches are constantly being tested—newweapons are being developed and new protectiveand defense measures are being established.Keeping up to date with new developments istherefore particularly important in the field ofCBR defense.

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RADIOLOGICAL DEFENSE

The detonation of a nuclear weapon createsa nuclear warfare environment. A nuclear weaponburst produces characteristic effects that damageboth ship and equipment, injure personnel, andadversely affect the performance of electronic,electrical, and communications equipment. Nuclearand thermal radiation are hazards of a nuclearwarfare environment that are added to thoseordinarily met in conventional warfare. The airblast and underwater shock effects of a nuclearweapon burst pose defensive problems of a greatermagnitude than those posed in an encounter usinghigh explosives. The air blast and released heatenergy of high-explosive detonation cause localizeddamage; in a nuclear weapons detonation, theseeffects may envelop the entire ship.

NUCLEAR WEAPONS HAZARDS

Nuclear radiation is a hazard to personnel atdistances well beyond the range of lethal damagefrom other effects. A ship’s continued perform-ance depends upon the effectiveness of nuclearwarfare defense actions that are undertakenduring and after a nuclear weapons burst.Personnel injuries may result from the nuclearweapons effects of air blast, underwater shock,thermal radiation, and nuclear radiation.

DAMAGE-SURVIVAL ZONE

The damaging effects of a nuclear weaponsattack generally decrease in severity as distancefrom the burst increases. As shown in figure 7-5,a kill zone surrounds surface zero; ships in thekill zone will be sunk, immobilized, or severelydamaged. Outside of this zone is a much largerdamage-survival zone in which ships will receivesevere topside damage, operational damage,moderate damage, or light damage. The size ofeach of these zones depends primarily on weaponsyield. The damage-survival zone is not only muchlarger than the kill zone, it is also much moreimportant from the standpoint of modern navalformations. This is because most of the damagedships in a modern naval formation probably willbe located within the damage-survival zone.

NON-NUCLEAR EFFECTS

A brief discussion of damage by non-nucleareffects is given below. Table 7-7 summarizes the

Figure 7-5.—Damage-survival zone.

possible types of damage that can result from airblast, underwater shock, or water waves.

Damage by Air Blast

An air blast is the name given to the pressurepulse created in the air by explosion. Air blastfrom a nuclear detonation can cause generaldamage up to 10 miles from the burst. The timerequired for the damaging effects to reach a shipmay range from seconds to about 1 minute. Air-blast damage primarily will be inflicted on thesuperstructure and the hull above the waterline.Surfaces that are nearly parallel to the air blastwill be damaged less than those that are nearlyperpendicular to it.

Damage by Underwater Shock

Underwater shock is the name given to thepressure pulse created in water as a result of anexplosion on or below the water surface. Shockfrom a nuclear burst is similar to that resultingfrom a depth charge. It can inflict severe damage

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Table 7-7.—Possible Damage from Air Blast, Underwater Shock, or Water Waves

to ships at a distance of several miles. Underwater of ship damage. Flooding may occur throughshock travels much faster than an air blast; it canarrive in from less than 1 second up to 10 seconds.Hull damage will occur in the form of dishedand ruptured plating and damaged supportingstructures. Light equipment may be tossed about,causing damage to other equipment and injury topersonnel. Engineering piping systems, shafting,and boiler brickwork are especially sensitive tounderwater shock.

Damage by Water Waves

Water waves from a surface or underwaterburst of a nuclear weapon maybe over a hundredfeet in height. In deep water, waves may be acontributing source of damage at ranges of over1 mile from a nominal nuclear weapon andpossibly over 10 miles from a megaton-weaponburst. Arrival time of the waves is from one-half minute to several minutes, depending onthe distance from the burst. Only in isolatedinstances will water waves be the primary source

weather doors-that have been damaged by an airblast.

PROTECTION AGAINST AIR BLAST,HEAT, AND UNDERWATER SHOCK

An air blast produces injuries among topsidepersonnel primarily by bodily displacement(picking them up and throwing them about) andamong below-deck personnel by displacement ofpersonnel and loose gear. The severity of injuriescan be reduced if personnel hold on to solid shipstructures and loose gear is secured.

Heat (also called thermal radiation) producesinjuries (skin burns and eye damage) amongtopside personnel and can ignite clothing or othercombustibles. The severity of potential thermalinjury may be reduced if personnel quickly coverexposed skin surfaces while dropping out of sightof the fireball or curling up on the deck topresent a minimum target to the fireball.

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Table 7-8.—Recommended Personnel Action Against

Table 7-8 summarizes actions personnelshould take to reduce injuries from air, surface,and underwater detonations for “warning” and“no warning” attack situations.

The maneuvers to reduce the vulnerability oftopside personnel to both thermal radiation andair blast effects of air and surface bursts areexplained in the following paragraphs.

Personnel in Open Topside Areas

When you see the flash or see the sky light up,close your eyes and immediately raise your handsto cover your face. Personnel hands-to-faceevasion is practical only for topside personnel whoare alerted by the flash. The hands-to-faceevasion is designed to provide protection againstair blast and thermal radiation.

Meanwhile, drop to the deck as rapidly aspossible. Do not use your hands to break yourfall; use your shoulder. Keep your hands overyour face, and curl up to present a minimumtarget. You may feel the heat from the detonation.Two to five seconds after the flash (depending onthe weapon yield) or after the heat sensation isover, remove your hands from your face. Thenimmediately grab hold of a solid ship structurefirmly to prevent the air blast winds from blowingyou overboard or against the ship’s structure. Youmay suffer flash blindness for up to 30 minutes.

Personnel in Congested Topside Areas

You may be in a position in which you cannotquickly drop to the deck (as those on a gun

mount). In such a case, when you see the flashor see the sky light up, close your eyes andimmediately raise your hands to cover your faceas rapidly as possible, while crouching andbending your head down. You may feel the heatfrom the weapon. At this point, grab hold of asolid ship structure to keep from being blownoverboard or against the ship’s structure by theair-blast winds.

Underwater shock produces injuries amongtopside and below-deck personnel by themechanical transmission of the water shock forcethroughout the ship structure. The shock forceresults in rapid upward acceleration of the deck.The deck hits personnel and throws them offbalance, propelling them into the overhead or intobulkheads. Personnel can reduce the severity ofpotential injuries if they hold on to solid shipstructures, flex their knees, and rest on the ballsof their feet. If personnel expect underwatershock, they should not lie prone on the deckbecause this position subjects more body area tothe forces transmitted through the deck.

Self-Aid and First Aid

If you or your shipmates should sustain injuriesor become contaminated with radiological,biological, or chemical agents during an attack,you can increase your chances of survival byimmediately administering certain self-aid andfirst-aid measures, Self-aid consists of thosemeasures that individuals can apply to helpthemselves. First aid is the assistance given bynonmedical personnel to a casualty until medicalhelp arrives.

Treat the blast and heat injuries from a nuclearexplosion in the same manner as those resultingfrom high-explosive bombs, incendiary weapons,and mechanical accidents. Follow standard self-aidand first-aid measures in treating fractures,concussions, lacerations, contusions, hemorrhages,burns, shock, and exposure.

Immediate treatment is not needed for nuclearradiation sickness. Remember, you could receivea dose of radiation even though you are NOTcontaminated with radioactive particles. If thepossibility exists that you have been exposed tonuclear radiation, you will be checked by medicalpersonnel and given appropriate treatment.

If directed, proceed to a personnel decon-tamination station, where you will discard yourclothing and equipment and take a shower. Inwashing, use plenty of soap and warm water; pay

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Nuclear Detonations

close attention to the hairy parts of your body,body creases, and fingernails, where dirt tends togather.

NUCLEAR RADIATION

Nuclear radiation presents a threat to ournaval forces. The effects of this threat can becontrolled if the basic facts of nuclear radiationare understood. The following paragraphsdescribe the phenomena of initial radiation,radioactive fallout, and types of radiation emittedby contamination.

Initial Radiation

Initial nuclear radiation consists of gammarays and neutrons and is emitted at the time ofa nuclear detonation. This radiation is emitted inthe first minute after burst; however, most of itis emitted in the first few seconds. This radiationcauses no damage to material, but it can be veryinjurious to ship’s personnel and produce manycasualties. The casualty range of initial radiationof a normal kiloton burst is over 1 mile. Initialradiation can readily penetrate the surface layersof targets. However, dense material, such as steel,can appreciably reduce radiation.

Radioactive Fallout

Radioactive fallout is a delayed phenomenonof a nuclear detonation. Most of the falloutoccurs minutes to hours after the burst. Surfaceand subsurface (underwater and underground)nuclear bursts deposit large amounts of falloutin localized areas. An airbursr in which the fireballdoes not contact the surface usually does not result

in fallout of military significance. This is becausethere is less radioactive material, and it is dispersedover a great area before reaching the surface.

Within a few seconds after the burst, theradioactive products primarily are in the atomiccloud (fig. 7-6) along with a much larger amountof nonradioactive material, such as seawater orsurface material. Radioactive elements mixedwith nonradioactive material form the totalcontaminant produced by the burst. This radio-active mixture falls back to the earth’s surface asradioactive fallout.

Heavier particles in the cloud fall out aroundsurface zero soon after the burst. The prevailingwinds carry finer and lighter particles over a largearea many miles from surface zero. A megatonburst carries significant amounts of fallout severalhundred miles and disperses it over thousands ofsquare miles. The time when fallout reaches agiven location may be from a fraction of a minuteto as much as 24 hours.

Types of RadiationEmitted by Contamination

Radioactive contamination can emit threetypes of ionizing nuclear radiation: alpha, beta,and gamma. A single particle of contaminant maybe the source of one or more of these types. Theseradiations are not detectable by the human senses;however, electronic instruments (radiacs) candetect the presence of radiation, differentiateamong the three types, and measure theirrespective amounts and intensities. The followingparagraphs discuss the three types of radiation.

ALPHA. —You can stop alpha radiation byalmost any barrier, including 1 to 2 inches of air.

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Figure 7-6.—Relative sizes and altitudes of radioactive fallout clouds.

Alpha radiation becomes a hazard only if alpha-emitting contaminants are taken into the body bybreathing, eating, drinking, or by absorptioninto the bloodstream through broken skin. Majoralpha contamination in a nuclear attack is notlikely; however, it will present a hazard in theevent of a nuclear weapons handling accident.

BETA . —Beta radiation has a range in the airof only a few feet and has limited penetratingpower. Generally, you cannot stop beta radiationwith light-porous material, such as ordinaryclothing, particularly since the contaminant tendsto impregnate the material. However, you canstop beta radiation with dense material, such asheavy-duty gloves and foul-weather clothing. Betacontamination is primarily a skin-contact hazard.

GAMMA. —Gamma radiation is similar to Xradiation (X rays). It has an effective range in theair of many hundreds of feet and is highlypenetrating. It cannot be completely stopped bya barrier. A sufficient thickness of material canreduce the intensity of gamma radiation to aninsignificant level. Because of the penetratingpower of gamma radiation and the large amountof gamma rays emitted by fallout contaminants,it is the most significant radiation hazard in mostcontaminated ship situations.

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICALDEFENSE

The threat of attack with chemical or bio-logical warfare agents is more likely on land.However, their uses are still a definite threat innaval engagements and amphibious operations.

BIOLOGICAL WARFARE (BW)

Large-scale use of biological warfare (BW)agents has not occurred in modern times.Therefore, there is little experience with themilitary potential of BW agents except by notingthat naturally occurring diseases have affected theoutcome of some past wars. Any nation with amodern scientific program can produce effectivebiological agents.

Biological warfare is the intentional use ofliving infectious microorganisms (germs) to reduceor destroy the military effectiveness of personnel.The exception to this is the recent use in SoutheastAsia and Afghanistan of toxins classified as BWagents but are not living organisms. BW agents

are living microorganisms (except toxins) thatcause disease in personnel, plants, and animals.BW agents differ greatly from chemical agents inthat a living microorganism can grow and multiplyin a susceptible host. Once infected, an incubationperiod is required before the infection producesa casualty. This incubation period varies greatlyamong infectious microorganisms. For thisreason, use of BW agents are unlikely to be usedin situations where results are needed in less than48 to 72 hours.

Detection and Identification

Because of the incubation period, there is alapse of time before victims realize they areinfected. Detection before the first symptoms arenoticed is difficult, and identification of aparticular agent may take considerable time. Itis possible to detect excessive organic life in theatmosphere, but identification of the particularagent is still in the development stage. Once abiological infection is started, it may spread bynormal contagious processes without further agentdeployment. BW agents will infect an individualif they enter the lungs, stomach, or bloodstream.

Dissemination

BW agents are likely to be dispersed asaerosols of solid or liquid particles and areinvisible except near the source of dissemination.These particles, when inhaled, can penetrate thelungs where they can start an infection. Aerosolsof BW agents can penetrate buildings and ships.The microorganisms required to infect an in-dividual are so small that it is possible for a singledelivery vehicle to spread a casualty-producingaerosol over many hundreds of square miles.When biological agents infect biting flies,mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks and are releasedinto an area, they, in turn, bite and infectpeople. BW agents may also be spread bysaboteurs, who may contaminate food andwater supplies, food processing plants, and air-conditioning systems. Shells, rockets, and mortarbombs are not suitable for dissemination of theseagents because of the adverse effect of heat andshock in an explosion.

Self-Aid

If you suspect that BW contamination hastaken place, put on your protective mask andobserve the basic principles of preventive

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medicine, which include individual hygiene,sanitation, and physical checkups. Report anyillness to medical authorities immediately.

If there is a possibility of contamination byBW agents, carefully remove your clothes to avoidspreading any contamination. Take a thoroughsoap and water shower as soon as possible. Paycareful attention to your face and hands. Use afingernail brush to remove dirt under your nails.Frequently brush your teeth and gums, the roofof your mouth, and your tongue. Dispose of yourcontaminated clothing as directed.

The speed with which the deadly effects ofsome biological agents take place will require youto take immediate self-aid and first-aid measures.

CHEMICAL WARFARE

Chemical warfare (CW) agents are thoseintended for use in military operations to kill,injure seriously, or incapacitate people throughphysiological effects. Chemical agents used asweapons of war are almost as old as recordedhistory and can be dated from the fifth centuryB.C. CW operations in the modern sense werefirst used during World War I when the Germanarmy released chlorine gas from large cylindersinto a favorable wind. Although large stocks ofchemical agents were produced and stockpiledduring World War II, none were used. Since theend of World War II, much effort has beendirected into research and development ofchemical agents. The introduction of nuclearweapons and the fact that CW agents were notused in World War II does not exclude thepossibility of their use in future wars. Detection,protection, and decontamination are the mostimportant concerns of CW defense.

Characteristics of Chemical Warfare

Chemical warfare has unique characteristics,and it is not thought of in terms of conventionalwarfare. Since chemical warfare is directedprimarily against man, it has obvious tacticaladvantages. It does not damage equipment orother war materials but rather makes them dirtyand renders them unusable. Chemical warfare isa weapon of surprise. It is capable of travelingover and around structures as well as penetratingcompartments. Chemical warfare is economicaland is capable of affecting large areas forrelatively small material expenditures. In additionto its lethal or incapacitating effects, the use ofchemical warfare causes morale and psychological

problems, and its impact on medical and logisticfacilities can be enormous. It also reduces perform-ance because of defensive measures needed tocombat it.

CW agents can attack the body through theeyes, nose, mouth, or skin. CW agents producealmost instantaneous casualties when they enterthe eyes, are breathed through the nose or mouth,or are ingested. Penetration through the skin islikely to produce casualties more slowly, althoughthe presence of open wounds can hasten theprocess. Almost any weapons system can be usedto deliver CW agents.

Classification of Chemical Agents

CW agents maybe classified according to theirphysical state, tactical use, or physiologicalaction. They exist as solids, liquids, or gases.You can also group CW agents according to theirtactical use.

CASUALTY CW AGENTS. —Casualty CWagents are capable of producing serious injury ordeath. They include nerve agents, blister agents,blood agents, and choking agents. The mostimportant are the nerve agents. They interferewith the transfer of nerve impulses, therebydisrupting essential bodily functions, such asbreathing, muscular control, and vision. Thenerve, blood, and choking agents are primarilykillers. The blister agents normally result only inincapacitation; however, they may cause blindnessand even death through secondary infection.

INCAPACITATING AGENTS. —These agentsproduce temporary physiological or mental effectsthat render individuals incapable of performingtheir assigned duties.

RIOT CONTROL AGENTS. —These agents,such as tear gas, produce only temporary irritatingor incapacitating effects when in contact with theeyes or when inhaled.

Effects of Chemical Warfare Agents

Victims of casualty agents (nerve, blister,blood, and choking agents) require hospitaliza-tion. Inhalation of high concentrations of vaporfrom these agents or contact with liquid agents,without prompt medical treatment, will producedeath.

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EFFECTS OF NERVE AGENTS. —You shouldconsider nerve agents to be the most dangerousbecause of their ability, even in small amounts,to cause casualties. Their detection by the sensesis unlikely since they are colorless, tasteless, andvirtually odorless, They cause no irritation oninitial contact or on entry into the body. Nerveagents can cause casualties almost immediatelywhen vapor is inhaled, when liquid is absorbedby the eyes or wounds, or when you consumecontaminanted food and water. Speed, both indonning your mask and in removing of con-tamination from exposed skin, is imperative. Youcan inhale a lethal dose in 5 to 10 seconds.Symptoms will occur in about 1 minute, in-capacitation in 1 1/2 minutes, and death in about6 minutes.

At the first sign of a NERVE AGENT in theatmosphere, stop breathing and put on yourprotective mask immediately. If possible, holdyour breath until the mask is on and properlyadjusted. Wear the mask constantly until you aresure no nerve agent is present in the air and theall-clear signal is given.

NOTE: The MCU-2/P gas mask is replacingthe Mk5. This new mask provides an improvedfield of vision, better voice communications,lower breathing resistance, and is more comfort-able to wear than the Mk5 gas mask.

If a liquid nerve or blister agent gets on theskin, you should remove it at once using the

M-258A1 decontamination kit. Information onhow to use the M-258A1 kit can be found in BasicMilitary Requirements, NAVEDTRA 14325.After decontaminating the affected area, continuewith your combat duties. You should examine thecontaminated area occasionally for local sweatingand muscular twitching. If none develops in thenext half hour and you have no tightness in yourchest, your self-aid was successful and you canforget it. However, if these symptoms do occur,inject one atropine injection and one 2-PAMchloride injection in the outer thigh at once. Wait10 minutes; if symptoms persist, administeranother atropine injection and another 2-PAMchloride injection. Wait 10 minutes; if symptomspersist, administer another atropine injectiononly. You cannot give more than three injectionsunless under the direct supervision of medicalpersonnel. However, under realistic conditionsthis may not be possible, so the senior person onthe scene must make a decision.

If a drop or splash of liquid nerve agent shouldget into your eyes, instant action is necessary toavoid serious injury.

WARNING

Do not use the M-258A1 kit to decon-taminate the eyes, wounds, or mouth asthe decontaminating agent is poisonousand a caustic hazard.

Quickly open a container of uncontaminatedwater, tilt your head back so the eyes look straightupward, and slowly pour the water into the eyesso the irrigation will last not less than 30 seconds.This irrigation must be done in spite of thepresence of nerve agent vapor. Hold your breathas much as possible during this procedure. If youcannot hold your breath long enough to completerinsing the eyes with water for 30 seconds, rinseas long as possible and put on your mask beforebreathing. After taking several breathes with themask on, remove the mask and complete thedecontamination, As soon as the irrigation iscompleted, put on the protective mask at once.Watch the pupil of the contaminated eye duringthe next minute, using a mirror if one is available;or else have someone nearby watch it for you. Ifthe pupil rapidly gets smaller, inject one atropineand one 2-PAM chloride injection at once intothe outer thigh. If the pupil does not get smaller,there is no nerve agent contamination. Do not usethe antidote until you are sure the symptoms arethose of nerve agent poisoning.

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MCU-2/P protective mask.

Exposure to high concentrations of nerveagents may bring on a lack of coordination,mental confusion, and physical collapse so fastthat a person may not be able to perform self-aid measures. If this happens, the necessaryprocedures will have to be done for the casualty(as first aid) by the nearest person who is able todo so.

Severe nerve agent exposure may rapidly causeunconsciousness, muscular paralysis, and stoppageof breathing. When this occurs, atropine and2-PAM chloride injections alone will not save alife. Start artificial ventilation, as a first-aidmeasure, immediately and continue until you canrestore natural breathing or until medical person-nel can take over. Atropine and 2-PAM injectionsincrease the effectiveness of artificial ventilationand should be administered to the casualty as soonas possible.

EFFECTS OF BLISTER AGENTS. —Blisteragents would probably be used in conjunctionwith nerve agents. They cause incapacitatingrather than lethal effects detectable by the senses.They smell of garlic, fish, or geraniums and mayappear as colorless to dark brown oily liquid ordroplets. They attack through all body entrypoints, particularly the eyes and those parts of thebody that are warm and moist. A droplet the sizeof a pinhead can cause a blister the size of aquarter. Blister agents react almost immediatelyon any part of the body they touch. You mustwash the liquid from the eyes in seconds to avoidan injury. Treatment after 2 minutes is of littleuse. On the skin, depending on the dose received,effects appear from 1 hour to days followingexposure. The first signs are a reddening of theskin, like a severe sunburn, followed by an itchingor a burning sensation. Blisters appear in a dayor less after reddening. Recovery time varies fromabout 6 days to as long as 8 weeks.

Because phosgene oxime (blister agent) reactsrapidly with tissue, decontamination will not beentirely effective after pain has begun. Never-theless, flush the contaminated area as rapidly aspossible with large amounts of water to removeany phosgene oxime that has not yet reacted withtissue.

Whenever liquid or vaporized blister agentsare known, be sure to wear the protective mask.You must deal with liquid blister agents in youreyes or on your skin immediately.

You can decontaminate a liquid blister agentin your eye that does not cause immediate painby rinsing the eye with water for at least 30

seconds. Try to regulate the flow of water so thatflushing lasts not less than 30 seconds and notmore than 2 minutes. Decontamination with watereffectively removes mustard gas and is now thestandard procedure for all blister agents.

The risk of leaving blister agents in the eye isgreater than the risk of exposure to blister agentvapors. The decontamination procedure MUSTbe performed in spite of the presence of vapor.

EFFECTS OF CHOKING AGENTS. —Choking agents are less effective than nerveagents; the use is for quick, incapacitating effects.Death may occur within 3 hours. Choking agentsare colorless but you can detect them by odor,which smells like new-mown hay or grass. Theyenter the body when inhaled through the nose ormouth. In low concentrations, there is a delayof 3 hours or more in their effect; in highconcentrations, the effect is immediate includingthe possibility of death within minutes.

Irritation of the eyes or a change in the tasteof a cigarette might indicate the presence of thechoking agent phosgene. Smoking may becometasteless or offensive in taste. If any signs ofchoking agents occur, hold your breath and puton the protective mask at once. Unless youexperience nausea, vomiting, difficulty inbreathing, or more than the usual shortness ofbreath caused by exertion, continue your normalcombat duties. If any of these symptoms occur,you should rest quietly until you are evacuatedby medical personnel.

EFFECTS OF BLOOD AGENTS. —Bloodagents were not very effective in World War Ibecause the high concentrations necessary to causedeath could not be achieved. Modern methods ofdelivery make their use possible; and because theyare less persistent than other agents, they can beimmediately used for quick casualty effects. Bloodagents are colorless but may have a slight odorof bitter almonds. They attack the body wheninhaled or ingested through the nose or mouth.A few breaths can cause incapacitation or death.Incapacitation can occur almost immediately; alethal dose of vapor can result in death within 15minutes.

In the case of blood agents, speed in self-aidand first-aid measures is essential. Stop breathingand put your mask on at once if you notice anystimulation of breathing; an odor of bitteralmonds; or any irritation of the eyes, nose, orthroat. The effects of blood agents act so rapidlythat within a few seconds you will be unable to

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put on the mask by yourself. If at all possible,try to hold your breath until the mask is on; thismay be very difficult since blood agents stronglystimulate respiration. If a person’s breathing hasstopped, administer artificial ventilation.

EFFECTS OF VOMITING AGENTS. —Vomiting agents are used for harassment but maybe dispersed along with lethal chemical agents.Vomiting agents alone cause temporary incapacita-tion only. Vomiting effects last from about 30minutes up to several hours, depending on theconcentration. Vomiting agents are invisible andodorless. They attack the body through the noseand mouth and irritate the eyes.

EFFECTS OF TEAR AGENTS. —Tear agentsare used for their harassing effect. They have beenused extensively as riot control and chemicaldefense training agents. Tear agents attack theeyes and irritate or burn moist areas of the skin.Effects are instantaneous but normally persist foronly a few minutes.

Table 7-9 shows the properties of blister,blood, nerve, and choking chemical agents.

PERSONNEL DECONTAMINATIONSTATIONS

Personnel decontamination stations differsomewhat from ship to ship, but the basicrequirements of the stations are the same. Eachdecontamination station is divided into two parts:(1) a contaminated or unclean section containinga washing area and (2) a clean section. Thisprevents recontamination of personnel and shiplocations. If possible, the unclean and cleansections have separate access routes or entrances.The decontamination station provides showerswith warm water (if possible); cleansing agents,such as ear syringes and eye bath cups; hair andnail clippers; scissors; surgeon’s hand soap;towels; and brushes. Radiation instruments formonitoring personnel and clothing and suppliesof clean clothing are also on hand at each station.

A decontamination (decon) station shouldbe about 8 feet by 9 feet. It should havean entrance from the outside and an exitinto an uncontaminated area near the showers.If exposed to contamination, you should useproper decontamination procedures. Do not

remove your mask until a monitor tells youit is safe to do so. In general, personneldecontamination does not take priority overurgent battle requirements, but it should beaccomplished as soon as possible. The followingis a list of decontamination procedures:

1. Remove rain gear and battle dress just out-side the decon station. Place it in the trash cans,bags, or other storage provided. Now you will bemonitored for contamination. If there is nocontamination, go to an uncontaminated spacethrough another route. If there is contamination,go through the process described in paragraph 2through 5 below.

2. Enter the first part of the decon station inpairs. Use the buddy system to do gross deconof masks and gloves with the M258A1 personneldecon kits. Decon boots by immersing them inthe 2- by 2- by 6-inch pans filled with a 9 percenthigh test hypochlorite (HTH) and water solution.

3. Move to the second part of the decon stationwhere attendants will cut away your smock andhelp remove your trousers and boots. Place thecontaminated clothing in trash bags for disposal.

4. Move to the showers, soap and wash yourentire body thoroughly, and rinse well. Pay specialattention to fingernails, hairy parts of the body,and hidden parts where contamination tends toconcentrate.

5. You are now ready to enter the clean partof the ship where you will put on new clothing.Before you enter the clean part, a monitor witha long-range radiac will check to ensure that youno longer carry contamination. Turn over yourDT-60 dosimeter to this monitor. The monitor willtake the readings and enter them in the log.Youwill be told if you can remove your gas mask.

MISSION-ORIENTEDPROTECTIVE POSTURE

Mission-oriented protective posture (MOPP)establishes levels of readiness. The MOPP is aflexible system of protection against chemicalagents used in chemical warfare defense. MOPPprescribes various types of protective clothing andequipment for wear, depending on the tacticalmission, work-rate demand, and heat stressconditions (actual or possible). There are four

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levels of MOPP, as shown in table 7-10. Theaccomplishment of the mission still has priority.However, there is concern for factors likeheat exhaustion, fatigue, senses, and personalneeds.

The MOPP does not require that individualswear complete protective equipment at all times.Duty requirements, body heat buildup, and basichuman needs prevent the use of full-protective

equipment for an indefinite period. The MOPPdoes, however, give the commanding officera wide range of choices of protection from noprotection at all to full-protective clothing andequipment. The ideal solution is to balance therequirement for protection with the work rateimposed by the mission. The balance willminimize both chemical and heat casualties. Thephysical location of personnel, such as topside or

Table 7-10.—EmpIoyment for MOPP Levels for Individual Protection

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within the ship, and their relative ability toenter and don full-protective clothing whilecontinuing to perform assigned duties must alsobe considered.

A great number of heat casualties is acceptablesince heat casualties are more likely to recover andordinarily do not require the intensive medicalcare necessary in treating chemical casualties.Personnel fully trained in the use of protectiveclothing and accustomed to its use will sufferfewer and less severe heat casualties.

DISASTER CONTROL ASHORE

“Disaster preparedness” means implementingactions to promote survival of personnel,preservation of resources, and restoration ofmission-essential operations following any typeof disaster. All naval activities must plan for self-recovery and provide an effective system ofmutual assistance when required. In planning fordisaster response, units should first consider thoserequirements necessary for their own survival.Each unit will have a civil disaster bill based onOPNAVINST 3120.32B.

As a senior petty officer, you maybe assignedas a member of, or to lead, a civil disaster detail.When providing civil disaster relief, you mayexpect to deal with demoralized, hysterical, orapathetic survivors. They may be incapable,temporarily at least, of intelligent action in theirown behalf. Mass destruction of homes and otherbuildings, widespread fires, and complete absenceof all forms of public utilities should be antici-pated. Disaster relief operations are normallyconducted in five phases (I-V).

Phase I (Planning)

Immediately following the order to providedisaster relief to an area, the planning phase (I)begins and extends until the detail arrives at thedisaster area. During this period, determine theneed for every aid. Assemble all available mapsand/or charts of the area, and make suitablereproductions to ensure adequate maps for rescueoperations. The geographic reference (GEOREF)grid system should be used.

The operations department prepares portablecommunications equipment and establishes a

communications plan. It also establishes disasterassistance teams. These teams should be self-sustaining and have adequate supplies of foodand water. Each team should also have crowbars,picks, fire axes, shovels, two blankets, and astretcher. If fires are anticipated, fire-fightingteams should break out available fire-fightinggear. The supply department provides foodand supplies and prepares to establish fieldkitchens and serve meals to survivors. Themedical department should be prepared toset up a field hospital and have medicalteams organized, equipped, and ready torender assistance as necessary.

Phase II (Investigation ofExtent of Disaster)

Phase II is the investigation of the extentof the disaster. Following a large-scale disaster,many confusing and inaccurate reports arelikely to be received from survivors. A surveyteam is dispatched to the disaster area. Itshould make contact with local authoritiesand determine the extent of immediate assistanceneeded and relay this information to the seniorofficer present. If available, helicopters canbe used to survey outlying areas to determinethe extent of the disaster.

Phase III (Initial Disaster Relief)

Phase III is the initial disaster relief phase. Thegeneral objectives of this phase are to

• rescue persons requiring immediateattention,

• fight and extinguish fires,

• render medical aid, and

• aid in any way within the capabilities ofpersonnel and materials to ease thesituation.

A command center is set up in the disaster areato direct and establish liaison with other rescuepersonnel to avoid duplication of effort. Therewill be no armed personnel in the disaster areaunless specifically authorized by the commandingofficer.

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Phase IV (Routine Aid and Assistance)

Phase IV consists of routine aid andassistance. The general objectives of this phaseare to

• continue medical and rescue work;

• provide food and supplies as required anddirected;

• commence repair of utilities, such ascommunications, water, and electricalsupply insofar as practical; and

• provide temporary shelter.

Phase V (Withdrawal)

Phase V is the withdrawal phase. When thesituation is under control, the unit will withdrawfrom the disaster area. Phase V is only emergencyrelief, not rehabilitation. Its primary purpose isto assist in a disaster area. All equipment andsupplies not authorized to be left behind will berecovered and returned to the command.

SUMMARY

There can be no substitute for training andpreparation in situations requiring damage controlaction. Damage resulting from battle, fire,collision, and CBR attack must be brought undercontrol as soon as possible to ensure the survivalof ship and crew. Successful damage controlrequires a detailed knowledge of the ship’sconstruction, characteristics, compartmentation,and stability. It also includes knowledge of thosedesign features and equipments used to preventor control damage should the ship be endangered.The control of damage depends on the ability andthe initiative of personnel to take promptcorrective action using materials that are readilyavailable.

As a senior petty officer, you will often beplaced in a position of responsibility for trainingor leading damage control repair parties. This isnot to say that you must know everything thereis to know about damage control. But, youshould be aware of the types of information andtraining that are available. Take advantage of theship’s damage control library for conducting

training on board. Your personnel should becross-trained in damage control procedures tobuild more effective and versatile teams.

In the event of a CBR attack, fast action onthe part of all personnel can minimize injury andprolonged incapacity. Knowing what actionsto take and when to take them can mean thedifference between survival and death andwinning and losing a battle. Properly appliedself-aid, first aid, and personnel decontaminationcan increase your chances of recovery from CBRexposure.

Natural disasters can occur at any time or anyplace in many forms, such as flooding, earth-quakes, and hurricanes. As a senior petty officer,you may be required to lead a civil disaster detailashore. Knowing what your duties are and whatto expect following a disaster can save lives andproperty.

REFERENCES

Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, Chapter 070,Radiological Recovery of Ships After NuclearWeapons Explosion, Naval Sea Systems Com-mand, Washington D.C., 1977.

Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, Chapter 470,Shipboard BW/CW Defense and Counter-measures, Naval Sea Systems Command,Washington, D.C., 1990.

Repair Party Manual, COMNAVSURFLANT-INST 3541.1C and COMNAVSURFPACINST3541.4B, Commanders Naval Surface Forces,United States, Atlantic/Pacific Fleets, Norfolk,Va. and San Diego, Calif., 1991.

Ship Repair Party Manual, COMNAVAIRLANT-INST 5400.27B, Commander, Naval AirForces, United States Atlantic Fleet, Norfolk,Va., 1985.

Standard Organization and Regulations of theU.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32B, Officeof the Chief of Naval Operations, Washington,D.C., 1986.

Surface Ship Survivability, NWP 62-1 (Rev. C),Office of the Chief of Naval Operations,Washington, D.C., 1989.

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DEVIL TO PAY

Today the expression “devil to pay” is used primarily as a means ofconveying an unpleasant and impending happening. Originally, this expressiondenoted the specific task aboard ship of caulking the ship’s longest seam.

The “devil” was the longest seam on the wooden ship, and caulking wasdone with “pay” or pitch. This grueling task of paying the devil was despisedby every seaman, and the expression came to denote any unpleasant task.

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