Chapter 7Chapter 7

ArgumentationArgumentation

The Formal ProcessThe Formal Process

Steps!Steps!

DataData-your evidence-your evidence WarrantWarrant-reasoning-logical -reasoning-logical

explanation-your argument: always explanation-your argument: always tie evidence to your arguments you tie evidence to your arguments you are making in debateare making in debate

ClaimClaim-conclusion you make-your -conclusion you make-your propositionproposition

Tests of Good EvidenceTests of Good Evidence

Is the evidence relevant to the claim?Is the evidence relevant to the claim? Is there enough evidence to support Is there enough evidence to support

the claim? Does the evidence come the claim? Does the evidence come from many different sources? This is from many different sources? This is not an isolated incident? Unusual?not an isolated incident? Unusual?

Recent/Most current evidence Recent/Most current evidence available!available!

Are your facts consistent with other Are your facts consistent with other facts to make your claim?facts to make your claim?

Is your evidence accessible?Is your evidence accessible?

InductionInduction

Reasoning from specific instances to Reasoning from specific instances to make a generalized conclusion about make a generalized conclusion about somethingsomething

Example:Example: Nate says restaurant A has terrible service.Nate says restaurant A has terrible service. DJ says restaurant A has terrible service.DJ says restaurant A has terrible service. Megan says restaurant A has terrible service.Megan says restaurant A has terrible service. Restaurant A has terrible service.Restaurant A has terrible service. Can be faulty! Hasty Generalization!Can be faulty! Hasty Generalization!

Tests of InductionTests of Induction

Are there a sufficient number Are there a sufficient number examples to support case?examples to support case?

Are examples typical or common? Are examples typical or common? Any exceptions?Any exceptions?

DeductionDeduction

Reasoning from general instance to a Reasoning from general instance to a specific casespecific case

SyllogismSyllogism Major Premise: All teachers must have a Major Premise: All teachers must have a

teaching certificate and bachelor’s degree.teaching certificate and bachelor’s degree. Minor Premise: Mrs. Bartel is a teacherMinor Premise: Mrs. Bartel is a teacher Conclusion: Therefore, Mrs. Bartel has a Conclusion: Therefore, Mrs. Bartel has a

teaching certificate and a bachelor’s teaching certificate and a bachelor’s degree.degree.

Tests of DeductionTests of Deduction

Make sure major premise is true or Make sure major premise is true or accurate.accurate.

Cannot use negatives in syllogismCannot use negatives in syllogism Make sure minor premise is a subset Make sure minor premise is a subset

of the major premise: The basic idea of the major premise: The basic idea is that if something is true of a class is that if something is true of a class of things in general, this truth applies of things in general, this truth applies to all legitimate members of that to all legitimate members of that class. class.

Sign ReasoningSign Reasoning

Reach logical conclusion based on Reach logical conclusion based on signs or physical evidencesigns or physical evidence

Be careful-even though there may be Be careful-even though there may be many signs that indicate a logical many signs that indicate a logical conclusion, may not be accurateconclusion, may not be accurate

Example of Sign Reasoning-Skin Example of Sign Reasoning-Skin CancerCancer

A small lump (spot or mole) that is shiny, waxy, A small lump (spot or mole) that is shiny, waxy, pale in color, and smooth in texture. pale in color, and smooth in texture.

A red lump (spot or mole) that is firm A red lump (spot or mole) that is firm

A sore or spot that bleeds or become crusty. Also A sore or spot that bleeds or become crusty. Also look for sores that don't heal. look for sores that don't heal.

Rough and scaly patches on the skin. Rough and scaly patches on the skin.

Flat scaly areas of the skin that are red or brown. Flat scaly areas of the skin that are red or brown.

Any new growth that is suspicious Any new growth that is suspicious

Reasoning by AnalogyReasoning by Analogy

Comparisons: both literal and figurativeComparisons: both literal and figurative Literal: Compare similar things: Ohio’s Literal: Compare similar things: Ohio’s

economy is much like Pennsylvania’s economy is much like Pennsylvania’s economy, both industrial and farming. economy, both industrial and farming. Since we have similar economies, we Since we have similar economies, we should institute a jobs program in Ohio should institute a jobs program in Ohio like the one instituted in Pennsylvanialike the one instituted in Pennsylvania

Make sure there are enough similarities Make sure there are enough similarities to compare the two!to compare the two!

Reasoning by AnalogyReasoning by Analogy

Figurative: Comparison of two unlike Figurative: Comparison of two unlike things: Biting your nails is a bad things: Biting your nails is a bad habit just like smoking is: both are habit just like smoking is: both are distasteful habits.distasteful habits.

I would stay away from these type of I would stay away from these type of analogies in your debate. Only to analogies in your debate. Only to add emphasis, but can be attacked!add emphasis, but can be attacked!

FallaciesFallacies

Something that is false or a mistaken Something that is false or a mistaken ideaidea

Catch your opponent using these and Catch your opponent using these and point fallacies out in your rebuttals or point fallacies out in your rebuttals or cross-examination period!cross-examination period!

BandwagonBandwagon Everyone is doing it, so should we!Everyone is doing it, so should we!

Use of opinion polls in debateUse of opinion polls in debate

Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what he believes will make himself happier. The he believes will make himself happier. The recognition of that can take most of the recognition of that can take most of the sting out of accusations that you're being sting out of accusations that you're being "selfish." Why should you feel guilty for "selfish." Why should you feel guilty for seeking your own happiness when that's seeking your own happiness when that's what everyone else is doing, too? what everyone else is doing, too?

Appeal to TraditionAppeal to Tradition

Status quo-negative defenseStatus quo-negative defense

Of course this mode of government is Of course this mode of government is the best. We have had this the best. We have had this government for over 200 years and government for over 200 years and no one has talked about changing it no one has talked about changing it in all that time. So, it has got to be in all that time. So, it has got to be good. good.

Hasty GeneralizationHasty Generalization

Jump to conclusions!Jump to conclusions!

Sam is riding her bike in her hometown in Sam is riding her bike in her hometown in Maine, minding her own business. A Maine, minding her own business. A station wagon comes up behind her and station wagon comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As he goes tries to force her off the road. As he goes by, the driver yells "get on the sidewalk by, the driver yells "get on the sidewalk where you belong!" Sam sees that the car where you belong!" Sam sees that the car has Ohio plates and concludes that all has Ohio plates and concludes that all Ohio drivers are jerks! Ohio drivers are jerks!

Ad HominemAd Hominem Latin: against the manLatin: against the man

Example: Bill: "I believe that abortion is Example: Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong." morally wrong." Dave: "Of course you would say that, Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a priest." you're a priest." Bill: "What about the arguments I gave to Bill: "What about the arguments I gave to support my position?" support my position?" Dave: "Those don't count. Like I said, Dave: "Those don't count. Like I said, you're a priest, so you have to say that you're a priest, so you have to say that abortion is wrong. Further, you are just a abortion is wrong. Further, you are just a lackey to the Pope, so I can't believe what lackey to the Pope, so I can't believe what you say." you say."

Slippery Slope-Inch MileSlippery Slope-Inch Mile "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next

thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!" semester!"

"The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other "The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die." troops, it will then send in thousands to die."

"You can never give anyone a break. If you do, "You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you." they'll walk all over you."

"We've got to stop them from banning "We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!" you know, they will be burning all the books!"

EquivocationEquivocation

DoublespeakDoublespeak The elements of the moral argument on the The elements of the moral argument on the

status of unborn life…strongly favor the status of unborn life…strongly favor the conclusion that this unborn segment of conclusion that this unborn segment of humanityhumanity has a right not to be killed, at has a right not to be killed, at least. Without laying out all the evidence least. Without laying out all the evidence here, it is fair to conclude from medicine here, it is fair to conclude from medicine that the that the humanityhumanity of the life growing in a of the life growing in a mother's womb is undeniable and, in itself, mother's womb is undeniable and, in itself, a powerful reason for treating the unborn a powerful reason for treating the unborn with respect. with respect.

EquivocationEquivocation This argument equivocates on the word This argument equivocates on the word

"humanity"—"the condition of being human"—"humanity"—"the condition of being human"—which means "of, … or characteristic of mankind" which means "of, … or characteristic of mankind" ((The Random House College DictionaryThe Random House College Dictionary). The two ). The two relevant meanings here are: relevant meanings here are:

"of…mankind," meaning being a member of the "of…mankind," meaning being a member of the human species. human species.

"characteristic of mankind." For instance, the "characteristic of mankind." For instance, the ""humanhuman heart" is "human" in this sense, since it is heart" is "human" in this sense, since it is not a human being, but is the kind of heart not a human being, but is the kind of heart characteristic of human beings.characteristic of human beings.

EquivocationEquivocation

Applying this to Alvaré's argument, it is Applying this to Alvaré's argument, it is true that the "humanity" of an embryo or true that the "humanity" of an embryo or fetus is medically undeniable, in the fetus is medically undeniable, in the second sense of "human"—that is, it is a second sense of "human"—that is, it is a ""humanhuman embryo or fetus." It is, however, embryo or fetus." It is, however, an equivocation on "human" to conclude, an equivocation on "human" to conclude, as Alvaré did, that it "has a right not to be as Alvaré did, that it "has a right not to be killed." Parts of the human body are killed." Parts of the human body are "human" in this sense, but it is only a "human" in this sense, but it is only a whole human being who has a right to life.whole human being who has a right to life.

Arguing from IgnoranceArguing from Ignorance

Because something has not been Because something has not been disproved, it is essentially proven to disproved, it is essentially proven to be true!be true!

Example: Although the United States Example: Although the United States never found evidence of an Iraqi never found evidence of an Iraqi nuclear weapons program, there is nuclear weapons program, there is no doubt it existed. (And we know no doubt it existed. (And we know this how...)this how...)

Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority

Just because someone said it is true, Just because someone said it is true, does not necessarily make it true!does not necessarily make it true!

This fallacy is committed when the This fallacy is committed when the person in person in questionquestion is not a legitimate is not a legitimate authority on the subject. More authority on the subject. More formally, if person A is not qualified formally, if person A is not qualified to make to make reliablereliable claims in subject S, claims in subject S, then the argument will be fallacious. then the argument will be fallacious.

Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority

Is this a matter which I can decide without Is this a matter which I can decide without appeal to expert opinion? If the answer is appeal to expert opinion? If the answer is "yes", then do so. If "no," go to the next "yes", then do so. If "no," go to the next question: question:

Is this a matter upon which expert opinion Is this a matter upon which expert opinion is available? If not, then your opinion will is available? If not, then your opinion will be as good as anyone else's. If so, proceed be as good as anyone else's. If so, proceed to the next question: to the next question:

Is the authority an expert on the matter? If Is the authority an expert on the matter? If not, then why listen? If so, go on: not, then why listen? If so, go on:

Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority

Is the authority biased towards one side? If Is the authority biased towards one side? If so, the authority may be untrustworthy. At so, the authority may be untrustworthy. At the very least, before accepting the the very least, before accepting the authority's word seek a second, unbiased authority's word seek a second, unbiased opinion. That is, go to the last question: opinion. That is, go to the last question:

Is the authority's opinion representative of Is the authority's opinion representative of expert opinion? If not, then find out what expert opinion? If not, then find out what the expert consensus is and rely on that. If the expert consensus is and rely on that. If so, then you may rationally rely upon the so, then you may rationally rely upon the authority's opinion. authority's opinion.