chapter 6—an introduction to metabolism · 2018. 10. 10. · catabolic vs. anabolic • catabolic...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 6—An Introduction to
Metabolism
YOU are an energy transformer!
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I. Energy, Metabolism, & Life
• Metabolism—
– All of an organism’s chemical reactions
• Emergent property arising from interactions
between molecules
• Manages the material and energy resources of
cells (supply and demand)
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The Complexity of Metabolism
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Catabolic vs. Anabolic
• Catabolic pathways— – Release energy by breaking down complex molecules
to simpler ones • Ex.—Cellular respiration
» C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy (ATP)
• Anabolic pathways— – Consume energy to build complex molecules from
simpler ones • Ex.—amino acids → protein
• Bioenergetics— – How organisms manage their energy resources
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Let’s Review… Energy!!
• Energy = ability to rearrange matter
• Kinetic vs. Potential
• Chemical energy—potential or kinetic?
• All organisms are energy transformers
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Yes, the Laws of Thermodynamics
Apply
• Thermodynamics—
– Energy transformations happening in a collection of matter (such as an organism)
– Organisms—closed or open systems?
• 1st Law of Thermodynamics— – Energy is transferred or transformed, but not created or
destroyed
» Examples? Cars? Plants?
• 2nd Law of Thermodynamics— – Energy transfers and transformations increase entropy
(disorder, randomness) of the universe
» Examples? Cars? People?
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What is the ultimate fate of all
energy?
• HEAT—
– energy in its most random state, its lowest
grade
– All chemical energy eventually becomes heat
• The _________ of energy in the universe
is constant, but its _________ is not.
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How can we reconcile the unstoppable
increase in entropy of the universe (2nd
Law)—with the orderliness of life?
• Organisms are islands of low entropy in an
increasingly random universe (because of
constant energy input!)
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We owe it all to free energy…
• Free Energy—
– Portion of a system’s energy that can perform
work when temp. is uniform throughout the
system (i.e. a living cell)
• Organisms live at the EXPENSE of free energy
acquired from the surroundings
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Relationship of Free Energy to Stability,
Work Capacity, & Spontaneous Change
Figure 6.5
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Free Energy = Spontaneous
Change
• Free Energy (G)
– Measure of instability, the tendency to change
to a more stable state
– G = H – TS
• H = total energy of the system
• S = entropy of the system
• T = absolute temperature in Kelvin (K = °C + 273)
• Free energy < Total energy due to entropy
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In any spontaneous process, the
free energy of a system decreases
• ∆G = ∆H – T∆S
– For a process to occur spontaneously, ∆G < 0
– At equilibrium, ∆G = 0 (no work can be done, death in living things)
• The greater the decrease in free energy, the more work can be performed
– Nature runs ―downhill‖
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Exergonic vs. Endergonic
Photosynthesis = +686 kcal/mole
Respiration = -686 kcal/mole
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ATP Powers Cellular Work
• Cellular Work = mechanical, transport,
chemical
• Energy coupling—
– ATP uses exergonic processes to drive
endergonic ones
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ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi
∆G = -7.3 kcal/mol (standard conditions)
Exergonic
Loaded spring
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How ATP Performs Work
ATP transfers its
phosphate group to
other molecules
making them unstable,
and more likely to react
chemically
Endergonic +
Exergonic = Overall
reaction is
spontaneous (∆G
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The Regeneration of ATP
ATP couples the cell’s energy-yielding processes to the energy-
consuming ones.
ADP + Pi → ATP + H2O
∆G = +7.3 kcal/mol (endergonic)
ATP is recyclable
10 million/per
second/per cell
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II. Enzymes speed up metabolic
reactions by lowering energy barriers
• Enzyme—
– Catalytic protein that changes the rate of a
reaction w/o being consumed by it
Enzyme for this reaction?
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Energy profile of an exergonic
reaction
Activation Energy
(EA)—
Investment of
energy for starting
a reaction
(required to break
bonds in
reactants)
Usually comes
from heat in
surroundings
Why is EA important?
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Enzymes lower the barrier of
activation energy
Enzymes speed up
reactions by
lowering EA
(transition
state can
occur at a
lower temp,
safe for cells)
ΔG stays the
same!
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Enzyme + Substrate =
• Substrate— – The reactant an enzyme acts on
Enzyme
• Substrate(s) → Product(s)
Sucrase
• Sucrose + H2O → Glucose + Fructose
• Enzymes are substrate specific—each type of enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction – Specificity results from 3-D shape of enzyme
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Catalytic Cycle of an Enzyme
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The Active Site—‖where the magic
happens‖
• Substrate binds to active site to form enzyme-substrate complex (induced fit)
– Held in place by weak bonds (hydrogen/ionic)
• R groups/side chains catalyze the change from substrate to product
• Enzyme emerges unchanged, ready to be used again (and again and again…)
– FAST—1,000 reactions/second (typical enzyme)
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How do they do that?
• Enzymes mechanisms:
– Induced fit
– Microenvironment
– Direct participation
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Environmental factors affect enzyme activity
• i.e. pH, temp, chemicals
• Enzyme Helpers— – Cofactors
(inorganic) • Zn, Fe, Cu
– Coenzymes (organic)
• vitamins
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Inhibition of Enzyme Activity
• Competive vs.
Noncompetive
Inhibitors
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III. The Control of Metabolism
• Allosteric regulation
– Allosteric activators and inhibitors
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Feedback Inhibition
• An end product
switches off a
metabolic pathway
• Allosterically inhibits
enzyme early in
pathway
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Localizing enzymes within cells
orders metabolism