Chapter 6

Learning and Development in Organisations: Intervention or

Informality?

Objectives

• To outline current themes in the L & D debate• To highlight the practical relevance of

organisational learning research by reference to a simplifying typology

• To review learning options at the level of the organisation, the team and the individual

• To assess whether intervention or informality is the best approach for managing learning activity

Figure 1: Categorising and defining organisational learning research

EXPLANATORY/DESCRIPTIVE

FOCUS

Individual learning within organizational context

Organizational-level based studies

LearningOrganizationliterature

‘4 i ’ frameworkLearning curveresearch

Information-Processing modelsBehavioural changes linked to learning

Quadrant 4

Quadrant 2

Quadrant 3

PRESCRIPTIVE/ NORMATIVE FOCUS

Individuals centralto organizational learningCommunitiesof practice

Quadrant 1

Key Themes

• Life-long learning

• Workplace learning

• Learner responsibility and independence

• Learning opportunities in teams

• How to promote organisational learning

• The national and international context and its influence on L & D practice

Definitions• Individual learning: ‘a self-directed, work-based

process leading to increased adaptive capacity’ • Organisational learning: ‘the principal means of

achieving the strategic renewal of an enterprise’ (Crossan, Lane & White, 1999) or ‘the processing of information that changes the range of the organization’s potential behaviours…’ (Huber, 1991).

• Organisational learning involves intervening proactively to manage learning and also recognising naturally occurring learning

Intervening Proactively

• secondments, job rotation, project work• appropriate external interventions• opportunities for direct interface with groups with

whom they do not normally come into contact, e.g. customers, suppliers or competitors

• educational programmes • benchmarking exercises • action learning• computer-based learning/ blended learning

Naturally Occurring Learning

• Learning happens all the same, and doesn’t necessarily lead to better performance

• Defensive reactions can prevent effective learning• ‘Competency traps’ can prevent organisations from

considering new and better possibilities• L & D specialists need to harness naturally occurring

learning to help the workplace to develop new skills• ‘Tacit skills’ are exchanged in an informal learning

context• HR systems can help create the context that supports

effective learning, e.g. recognising those who excel at developing others

Team Learning

• Intervening proactively– Cross training (familiarising each team member with

the activities of the rest of the team)– Reflexivity (building in time for teams to review their

performance and make plans for the future)– Having learning-oriented goals for team members– Having team members support one another for multi-

skilling– Opportunities for interaction with customers– Work shadowing

• Naturally Occurring Learning– Supportive HR policies and practices to

enhance willingness and motivation to share knowledge

– Communities of practice – recognising expertise and providing support where needed rather than seeking to control

– Mentoring and coaching• Supporting leaders• Rotating roles across teams

Individual Learning: The Formal Agenda

• Direction-setting for learning– The importance of having clear goals– Using ‘learning-oriented’ goals (especially important

for high achievers)– Helping people to develop learning strategies

• Motivation for learning– Leads to better quality result and higher probability of

transfer– Linked with the learner’s expectations about what will

result from the learning intervention– Vroom’s V.I.E. framework

Individual Learning: The Informal Agenda

• ‘Learning to learn’ and self-actualisation• Support is necessary, especially from

– senior management– line management

• Systems should be in place to guide the learner on how to record his/her learning

• There should be transparency in ‘next steps’, i.e. progress within the organisation and developmental/ promotion opportunities

Conclusion (1)

• This chapter has examined L & D by focusing on three learning levels – organisational, team and individual

• L & D specialists and all those with responsibility for learning and development have to make choices; on the one hand, proactively intervening by devising appropriate interventions and, on the other, creating the context within which learning occurs naturally

&

Conclusion (2)

• There is no single ideal route that will meet the needs of every organisation; much depends on the external context, including national and international factors, the existing climate for L & D, and the needs and aspirations of the learners

• Our hope is that this chapter opens new avenues for L & D specialists and highlights current issues, opportunities and challenges in managing L & D in organisations