Chapter 5

Gender and Gender Roles

Sex, Gender, and Gender Roles

• Sex: whether one is biologically female, male, or intersex– Genetic sex: chromosomal and hormonal

sex characteristics– Anatomical sex: our physical sex; gonads,

uterus, vulva, vagina, or penis• Gender: social and cultural characteristics

associated with being male or female• Gender identity: gender one believes self to be

Sex and Gender Identity• Assigned gender• Gender variations• Gender identity• Gender role

Gender-Roles

• Gender-role stereotype • Gender-role attitude

– The belief concerning what’s appropriate for male or female traits

• Gender-role behavior– Activities or behaviors a person engages in as a

female or male

Masculinity and Femininity

• Sexes seen as polar opposites in traditional Western view, e.g. “opposite sex”

• Different qualities associated with different genders

• Sexism• Some qualities are biologically based,

some culturally based

Gender and Sexual Orientation

• Gender, gender identity, and gender role are conceptually independent of sexual orientation

• Heterosexuality has been assumed to be part of masculinity and femininity

Gender Theory• Developed in the ’80s and ’90s to

explore the role of gender in society

• Seeks to understand society through understanding how its organized by gender

• Views gender as a basic element in social relationships

Gender Theory in Psychology• How gender is created and its purposes

• How specific traits, behaviors, and roles are defined as male or female

• How gender creates advantages and disadvantages

• Rejects the idea that gender differences are primarily biologically-driven

• Operates from a social-constructivist framework

Theories of Socialization

• Social learning theory

• Cognitive development theory

Cognitive Social Learning Theory

• Emphasizes consequences as shaping gender related behavior

• Cognition: Mental processes such as evaluation and reflection– Includes ability to use language– Anticipate consequences– Modeling

Cognitive Development Theory

• Focuses on children’s active interpretation of gender

• After age 6 or 7, motivation to act like one’s gender is primarily internal, and that gender-role behavior is intrinsic

Social Construction Theory

• Gender expression is an outcome of– Power– Language– Meaning

• Relationship to sexual orientation– Women– Men

Gender-Role Learning: Childhood and Adolescence

• Parents as socializing agents– Manipulation– Channeling– Verbal appellation– Activity exposure– Connections between sons and mothers– Ethnic groups

Gender-Role Learning: Childhood and Adolescence

• Teachers as Socializing agents– Females are more common– Bias in presentation of topics

• Peers as socializing agents– Play– Approval– Perceptions

• Media

Gender Schemas: Exaggerating Differences

• Interrelated ideas help information processing

• Cognitive organization of world by gender

• Emphasize dichotomy

• Minimize valuing of the individual

Contemporary Gender Roles

• Women’s roles have changed

• Men’s roles have changed

• Must include diverse groups

• Egalitarian approach to gender roles

Traditional Male Gender Role

• Aggressiveness• Emotional

toughness• Independence• Feelings of

superiority• Decisiveness

• Power orientation• Competitiveness• Dominance• Violence

Traditional Male Sexual Scripts: Zilbergeld

– Men should not have or express certain feelings

– Performance is the only thing that counts– The man is in charge– A man always wants sex and is ready for it– All physical contact leads to sex– Sex equals intercourse– Sexual intercourse leads to orgasm

Traditional Female Gender Role

• American middle-class Whites: women as wives and mothers. Recently includes work outside the home

• African Americans: more egalitarian roles for men and women

• Latinas: women subordinate to men out of respect; Gender role affected by age

Traditional Female Sexual Scripts:

• Sex is good and bad • It’s not okay to touch yourself “down there”• Sex is for men • Men should know what women want • Women shouldn’t talk about sex • Women should look like models• Women are nurturers: they give, men

receive • There is only one right way to have an

orgasm

Changing Gender Roles

• Egalitarian position

• Androgyny: flexibility in gender roles, combining elements of each traditional role

Contemporary Sexual Scripts• Sexual expression is positive• Sexual activities involve a mutual exchange of

erotic pleasure, and both partners are equally responsible

• Legitimate sexual activities are not limited to intercourse but include masturbation and oral sex

• Sexual activities may be initiated by either partner

• Both partners have a right to experience orgasm, whether through intercourse, oral sex, or manual stimulation

• Non-marital sex is acceptable within a relationship context

Androgyny

• Unique combination or instrumental and expressive traits

• Difficulties with expression and expectation

When Sex is Ambiguous

• Intersexuality

• Tran sexuality

• Transgenderism

Intersexuality

• Possess mixtures of male and female genitalia or reproductive physiology

• Known until recently as “hermaphrodites”

• Shrouded in secrecy by families and medical establishments in the past

Intersexuality

• Hermaphrodites: Old terminology

• Ambiguous genitals: 1/2000 births

• Blended gonads or both gonads

• One ovary and one testis, or testes containing ovarian tissue

Chromosomal Anomalies: Turner Syndrome

• Females who lack a chromosome: XO rather than XX

• Occurs in 1/1666 live births

• Female external appearance

• No ovaries

• Hormonal therapy

• Assisted fertility

Chromosomal Anomalies: Klinefelter Syndrome

• Males who have extra X chromosomes: XXY, XXXY, or XXXXY rather than XY

• Occurs in 1/1000 live births• Variable effects; many men never

diagnosed.• Small firm testes; some female physical

traits• Lower testosterone levels

Hormonal Disorders: Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome

• Inherited condition occurring in 1/13,000 individuals

• Genetic males whose tissues do not respond to testosterone

• Female genitals, no female internal organs• At puberty, develops hips and breasts, no

pubic hair and no menstruation• Many experience female gender identity

Hormonal Disorders: Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

• A genetic female with ovaries and a vagina develops externally as a male

• Due to malfunctioning of adrenal gland

• Occurs in 1/13,000 live births– At birth, ambiguous genitalia– In the past, doctors and families choose to

assign female gender at birth

Hormonal Disorders: DHT deficiency

• Internal male organs

• Clitoris-like penis at birth

• Undescended testes at birth

• Testes descend at puberty and penis grows

• Socialization

Hypospadias

• Urethral opening is not in correct location

• Exists on underside of glans

• Occurs in 1/770 male births

• Repair is possible

Gender Identity Disorder • A strong and persistent cross-gender

identification and persistent discomfort about one’s assigned sex

• Diagnosis not associated as hormonal or physiological

• Requires experience of distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning

Gender Identity Disorder• Lasting personal comfort with the

gendered self • Treatment is individual and multifaceted

– Psychotherapy– Real-life experience living externally as

desired gender– Hormonal therapy– Sex-reassignment surgery

Transsexuality

• Gender identity and sexual anatomy are not congruent

• Estimated 1/50,000 people over 15 yrs

• May occur with heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual orientations

• Gender reassignment

Transsexual Phenomenon

• Embraces possibility of numerous genders and multiple social identities

• Other cultures recognize more than 2 genders

• Paradigm shift of gender dichotomy

• Employment protection