chapter 4: tissue the fabric of life. tissue group of cells – similar in structure and perform a...
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Chapter 4: TissueThe Fabric of Life
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Tissue
• Group of cells – similar in structure and perform a common function
• 4 Basic Types – 1. Epithelial – covering2. Connective – support3. Muscle - movement4. Nervous - control
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Nervous tissue: Internal communication• Brain, spinal cord, and nerves
Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)• Muscles of heart (cardiac)• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters• Skin surface (epidermis)• Lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs
Connective tissue: Supports, protects, bindsother tissues together• Bones• Tendons• Fat and other soft padding tissue
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Histology
• Study of tissues• Preparing tissue:• Specimen –
1. Must be fixed (preserved)2. Cut into sections (slices)3. Stained – enhance contrast
• Artifacts – minor distortions – tissue on slides, not exactly like living tissue
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Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelium• Sheet of cells that cover a body surface or lines a body
cavity• 2 main types:
1. Covering and lining2. Glandular epithelium
• Boundaries between different environments1. Protection2. Absorption3. Filtration4. Excretion5. Secretion6. Sensory reception
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Epithelial Tissue
• Special Characteristics1. Polarity – - Apical surface – upper free surface exposed to body
exterior- Basal surface – lower attached surface- Apical – basal polarity - Apical Surfaces: Microvilli- fingerlike extensions of
plasma membrane or Cilia – tiny hair like projections- Basal lamina – supporting sheet – adhesive sheet
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Epithelial Tissue
2. Specialized Contacts – adjacent cells bound together by tight junctions and desomosomes
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Epithelial Tissue
3. Supported by Connective Tissue- Reticular lamina – layer of extracellular
material - Collagen protein fibers- Basement membrane
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Epithelial Tissue
4. Avascular but Innervated – - Innervated – supported by nerve fibers- Avascular – no blood vessels- Nourished by nutrients diffusing from blood
vessels in underlying connective tissue5. Regeneration – reproduces rapidly when
damaged
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Epithelial Tissue
• Classification – based on number of layers and type of cell
• 2 names– 1st – number of cell layers present– 2nd – shape of cell
• Simple epithelia – single cell layer• Stratified epithelium – 2 or more cell layers
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Stratified
Simple
(a) Classification based on number of cell layers.
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Cell Shape
• Squamous cells – flattened and scale like• Cubodial cells – boxlike, ~as tall as they are
wide• Columnar cells – tall and column shaped
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Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar(b) Classification based on cell shape.
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Epithelial Tissue
• Simple Epithelia – • Simple – single cell layer• Most concerned with absorption, secretion,
and filtration• Very thin
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Epithelial Tissue- Simple
• Simple Squamous Epithelium -• Simple – one cell layer• Flattened laterally• Cytoplasm sparse• Thin, permeable• Found everywhere• Filtration or exchange by rapid diffusion• Ex. Endothelium – slick, friction reducing lining of lymphatic
vessels and blood vessels• Mesothelium – epithelium of serous membrane linign ventral
body cavity and organs
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Description: Single layer of flattenedcells with disc-shaped central nucleiand sparse cytoplasm; the simplestof the epithelia.
Function: Allows passage ofmaterials by diffusion and filtrationin sites where protection is notimportant; secretes lubricatingsubstances in serosae.
Location: Kidney glomeruli; air sacsof lungs; lining of heart, bloodvessels, and lymphatic vessels; liningof ventral body cavity (serosae).
Photomicrograph: Simple squamous epitheliumforming part of the alveolar (air sac) walls (125x).
Air sacs oflung tissue
Nuclei ofsquamousepithelialcells
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Epithelial Tissue - Simple
• Simple Cubodial Epithelium – • Single layer of cube-like cells • Secretion and absorption• Found in walls of smallest ducts and glands
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Figure 4.3b
(b) Simple cuboidal epithelium
Description: Single layer ofcubelike cells with large,spherical central nuclei.
Function: Secretion andabsorption.
Location: Kidney tubules;ducts and secretory portionsof small glands; ovary surface.
Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidalepithelium in kidney tubules (430x).
Basementmembrane
Connectivetissue
Simplecuboidalepithelialcells
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Epithelial Tissue - Simple
• Simple Columnar Epithelium – • Single layer of tall, closely packed cells aligned
in a row• Lines digestive tract• Absorption and secretion• Modifications in digestive tract
1. Dense microvilli on apical surface of absorptive cells
2. Cells secrete protective mucus
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Figure 4.3c
(c) Simple columnar epithelium
Description: Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells).
Function: Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal),gallbladder, and excretory ducts of someglands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regionsof the uterus.
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar epitheliumof the stomach mucosa (860X).
Simplecolumnarepithelialcell
Basementmembrane
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Epithelial Tissue - Simple
• Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium – • Vary in height• False – pseudo – impression of many cell
layers• Absorbs or secretes substances• Ciliated version lines respiratory tract
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Figure 4.3d
(d) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Description: Single layer of cells ofdiffering heights, some not reachingthe free surface; nuclei seen atdifferent levels; may contain mucus-secreting cells and bear cilia.
Function: Secretion, particularly ofmucus; propulsion of mucus byciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type in male’ssperm-carrying ducts and ducts oflarge glands; ciliated variety linesthe trachea, most of the upperrespiratory tract.
Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliatedcolumnar epithelium lining the human trachea (570x).
Trachea
Cilia
Pseudo-stratifiedepitheliallayer
Basementmembrane
Mucus ofmucous cell
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Epithelial Tissue - Stratified
• Stratified Epithelium – • 2 or more cell layers• Regenerate from below• More durable the simple• Protection – major role
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Epithelial Tissue - Stratified
• Stratified Squamous Epithelium – • Several layers• Areas of wear and tare• Cell surface – epidermis – keratinized – cell
surface contains keratin – protective protein
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Figure 4.3e
(e) Stratified squamous epithelium
Description: Thick membranecomposed of several cell layers;basal cells are cuboidal or columnarand metabolically active; surfacecells are flattened (squamous); in thekeratinized type, the surface cells arefull of keratin and dead; basal cellsare active in mitosis and produce thecells of the more superficial layers.
Function: Protects underlyingtissues in areas subjected to abrasion.
Location: Nonkeratinized type formsthe moist linings of the esophagus,mouth, and vagina; keratinized varietyforms the epidermis of the skin, a drymembrane.
Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous epitheliumlining the esophagus (285x).
Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
Nuclei
Basementmembrane
Connectivetissue
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Epithelial Tissue - Stratified
• Stratified Cubodial epithelium• Rare• Found in ducts of larger glands: sweat,
mammary• 2 layers of cubodial cells
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Epithelial Tissue - Stratified
• Stratified columnar Epithelium – • Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and
lining some glandular ducts• Only apical layers of cells is columnar
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Epithelial Tissue
• Transitional – • Forms lining of hallow urinary organs which
stretch• Basal layer – cubodial or columnar• Apical – vary in appearance• Ability to change shape• Allows bladder to stretch
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Figure 4.3f
(f) Transitional epithelium
Description: Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells domeshaped or squamouslike, depending on degree of organ stretch.
Function: Stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine.
Location: Lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra.
Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining the urinary bladder, relaxed state (360X); note the bulbous, or rounded, appearance of the cells at the surface; these cells flatten and become elongated when the bladder is filled with urine.
BasementmembraneConnectivetissue
Transitionalepithelium
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Epithelial Tissue
• Glandular Epithelium – • Gland – one or more cells that make and secrete (export) a
particular product• Secretion – the product, aqueous 9water-based) fluid that
usually contains proteins, but there is some variation• Active process• Classified as –
– Endocrine – internally secreting– Exocrine – externally secreting– Unicellular – one celled– Multicellular – many cells
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Glandular Epithelium
• Endocrine Glands – • Eventually loose their ducts• Ductless glands• Produce hormones – regulatory chemicals• Secrete – exocytosis – directly into
extracellular space• Enter blood or lymph • Travel to target organs
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Glandular Epithelium
• Exocrine Gland – • Secrete products onto body surfaces (skin) or
into body cavities• Unicellular – exocytosis• Multicellular – epithelium, walled ducts• Include mucus, sweat, etc.
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Glandular Epithelium
• Unicellular Exocrine Glands –• Mucus cells and goblet cells• Sprinkled in epithelial linings of intestinal and
respiratory tracts• Humans – all produce mucin – glycoprotein that
dissolves in water when secreted , once dissolved forms mucus
• Called goblet cells – b/c accumulation of mucus distends the top of the cell
• Distortion does not occur in mucosal cells
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Figure 4.4
(b)(a)
Microvilli
Secretoryvesiclescontainingmucin
Golgiapparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
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Glandular Epithelium
• Multicellular Exocrine Glands – • 2 parts – duct and secretory unit (acinus)• Supportive connective tissue surrounds
secretory unit and supplies it with blood vessels
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Multicellular Exocrine Glands• Structural Classification – • Simple glands – unbranched duct• Compound glands – branched duct• Secretory units –
1. Tubular – secretory cells form tubes2. Alveolar – small, flask like sacs3. Tubular alveolar - both
• Modes of secretion –1. Merocrine glands – secrete products by exocytosis as they
are produced– Ex. Sweat glands
2. Holorcrine glands – accumulate products within them until the rupture
– Cells – die for their cause– Sebaceous (oil) glands of skin
• Apocrine gland – present in other animals – Controversy – as to if in humans
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Figure 4.5
Compound duct structure(duct branches)
Simple tubular
ExampleIntestinal glands
Simple branchedtubular
ExampleStomach (gastric)glands
Compound tubular
ExampleDuodenal glands of small intestine
Compound alveolar
ExampleMammary glands
Simplealveolar
ExampleNo importantexample in humans
Simple branchedalveolar
ExampleSebaceous (oil)glands
Compoundtubuloalveolar
ExampleSalivary glands
Tubularsecretorystructure
Alveolarsecretorystructure
Surface epithelium Duct Secretory epithelium
Simple duct structure(duct does not branch)
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Connective Tissue• Found everywhere in body• Most abundant• Widely distributed in primary tissues• 4 main classes
1. Connective tissue proper – fat and fibrous tissue of ligaments2. Cartilage3. Bone tissue4. Blood
• Major functions1. Binding and support2. Protection3. Insulation4. Transportation (blood)
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Table 4.1
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Connective Tissue
• Common Characteristics – 1. Common origin – all arise from mesenchyme (embryonic
tissue)2. Degrees of Vascularity –
- Cartilage – avascular- Dense – poorly vascularized- Others – highly vascularized
3. Extracellular Matrix – - Nonliving extracellular matrix- Able to bear weight- Withstand great tension- Endure abuses – physical trauma and abrasion
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Connective Tissue
• Structural Elements – • 3 main – ground substance, fiber, and cells• Extracellular matrix – ground substance +
fibers
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Connective Tissue – Structural Elements
• Ground Substances – • Unstructured material that fill space between cells• Contain fibers• Composed of:
– Interstitial (tissue) fluid– Cell adhesion proteins– proteoglycans
• Cell adhesion proteins – fibronectin, laminin, and others• Connective tissue “glue”• Proteoglycans – protein core with glycoaminoglycans (GAGs) attached• Form gel-like matrix
– Interstitial (tissue) fluid– Cell adhesion proteins– proteoglycans
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Connective Tissue – Structural Elements
• Fibers – provide support1. Collagen fibers – fibrous protein collagen
molecules secreted into space- assemble cross linking
- Cross linking – tough and provide tensile strength
- White appearance – also called white fibers
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Connective Tissue – Structural Elements
2. Elastic fibers – long, thin form branching networks
- Contain elastin-allows stretch and recoil- Skin, lungs, blood vessel walls- Yellow appearance – yellow fibers
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Connective Tissue – Structural Elements
3. Reticular fibers – short, fine collagenous fibers
- Continuous with collagen fibers, branch extensively
- Form delicate networks- “fuzzy” nets- Allow give
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Connective Tissue – Cells
• Primary cell types – 1. Connective tissue proper – fibroblast2. Cartilage – chondroblast3. Bone – osteoblast
- Hematopoietic stem cell – undifferentiated cell – produces blood cells
- Home to other cell types –1. Fat cells – store nutrients2. Mobile cells – WBCs –neutrophils, esinophils, lymphocytes3. Mast cells – cluster among blood vessels – detect foreign
organisms4. Macrophages – phagotiyze board variety of foreign materials
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Types of Connective Tissue
• All arise from a common embryonic line – mesenchyme derived from embryonic mesoderm
• Connective tissue proper – Loose connective tissue
• 2 subclasses: – loose connective tissue
• Areolar, Adipose, Reticular
– Dense connective tissue• Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic
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Loose Connective Tissue
1. Areolar Connective Tissue – - Functions;
- Support and binding to other structures- Holding body fluids- Defending against infection- Storing nutrients as fat
- Loose arrangement of tissue- Loose nature – reservoir for water and salts for
surrounding body tissues- Hold approximately as much as entire blood stream
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1. Areolar Connective Tissue
• High content of hyaluronic acid - makes it very viscous
• WBC – secrete hyaluronidase – to liquefy ground substances so they can maneuver
• Edema – in a body region, inflamed, soaks up excess fluid, swells and puffy
• Most widely distributed• Universal packing tissue
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(a) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar
Description: Gel-like matrix with allthree fiber types; cells: fibroblasts,macrophages, mast cells, and somewhite blood cells.
Function: Wraps and cushionsorgans; its macrophages phagocytizebacteria; plays important role ininflammation; holds and conveystissue fluid.
Location: Widely distributed underepithelia of body, e.g., forms laminapropria of mucous membranes;packages organs; surroundscapillaries.
Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, asoft packaging tissue of the body (300x).
Epithelium
Laminapropria
Fibroblastnuclei
Elasticfibers
Collagenfibers
Figure 4.8a
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2. Adipose (Fat) Tissue
• Similar to areolar tissue in structure and function, but can store nutrients
• Also called white fat or white adipose fat• Adipocytes – adipose of fat cells• 90 % of tissue mass• Matrix – scanty• Cells packed closely together• Chicken wire appearance• Oil droplet occupies most of cells volume, displaces nucleus
to one side• Richly vascularized, high metabolic activity
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2. Adipose (Fat) Tissue
• With out fat stores body can not survive for more than a few days without eating
• 18 % of average person’s body weight• Chubby – 50 % fat without being considered obese• Can develop anywhere, usually accumulates in
subcutaneous tissue – acts as a shock absorber, insulation, and energy storage
• Poor heat conductor – so prevents heat loss from body• Also accumulates around kidneys, behind eyeballs,
abdomen and hips
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2. Adipose (Fat) Tissue
• Brown fat – brown adipose tissue• Abundant mitochondria• Which use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream to
warm body rather than produce ATP• Richly vascularized – only occurs in babies who
lack the ability to produce body heat by shivering
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Figure 4.8b
(b) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
Description: Matrix as in areolar,but very sparse; closely packedadipocytes, or fat cells, havenucleus pushed to the side by largefat droplet.
Function: Provides reserve foodfuel; insulates against heat loss;supports and protects organs.
Location: Under skin in thehypodermis; around kidneys andeyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts.
Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from thesubcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).
Nucleus offat cell
Vacuolecontainingfat droplet
Adiposetissue
Mammaryglands
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3. Reticular Connective Tissue
• Resembles areolar tissue• Only fibers – reticular fibers• Reticular cells – fibroblasts – scattered• Labyrinth – like stroma or internal framework• Support many free body cells in lymph nodes,
spleen, and bone marrow
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Figure 4.8c
(c) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular
Description: Network of reticularfibers in a typical loose groundsubstance; reticular cells lie on thenetwork.
Function: Fibers form a soft internalskeleton (stroma) that supports othercell types including white blood cells,mast cells, and macrophages.
Location: Lymphoid organs (lymphnodes, bone marrow, and spleen).
Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticularconnective tissue fibers forming the internal skeletonof the spleen (350x).
Spleen
White bloodcell(lymphocyte)
Reticularfibers
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Connective Tissue Proper – Dense Connective Tissue
• Also called fibrous connective tissue1. Dense regular connective tissue – • Closely packed bundles of collagen fibers
running in the same direction• Parallel to the direction of pull• White, flexible structures with great resistance
to tension (pulling forces) where tension is exerted in a single direction
• Crowded in – rows of fibroblasts
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1. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
• Slightly wavy• Allow tissue to stretch• Once straightened – no further give• Few cells – other than fibroblasts• Poorly vascularized• Forms – Tendons– Fascia – fibrous membranes – wrap around muscles, blood
vessels, and nerves– Ligaments – slightly more stretchy
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Figure 4.8d
(d) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular
Description: Primarily parallelcollagen fibers; a few elastic fibers;major cell type is the fibroblast.
Function: Attaches muscles tobones or to muscles; attaches bonesto bones; withstands great tensilestress when pulling force is appliedin one direction.
Location: Tendons, mostligaments, aponeuroses.
Photomicrograph: Dense regular connectivetissue from a tendon (500x).
Shoulderjoint
Ligament
Tendon
Collagenfibers
Nuclei offibroblasts
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2. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
• Same structural elements• Bundles of collagen fibers – thicker and arranged
irregularly• Runs in more than one plane• Forms sheets in body areas where tension is exerted in
many directions• Skin – leathery dermis• Fibrous joint capsules• Fibrous coverings that surround organs – kidneys,
bones, cartilages, muscles, and nerves
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Figure 4.8e
(e) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular
Description: Primarilyirregularly arranged collagenfibers; some elastic fibers;major cell type is the fibroblast.
Function: Able to withstandtension exerted in manydirections; provides structuralstrength.
Location: Fibrous capsules oforgans and of joints; dermis ofthe skin; submucosa ofdigestive tract.
Photomicrograph: Dense irregularconnective tissue from the dermis of theskin (400x).
Collagenfibers
Nuclei offibroblasts
Fibrousjointcapsule
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3. Elastic Connective Tissue
• Very elastic • Few ligaments – ligamenta nuchea and flara
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Figure 4.8f
(f) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, elastic
Description: Dense regularconnective tissue containing a highproportion of elastic fibers.
Function: Allows recoil of tissuefollowing stretching; maintainspulsatile flow of blood througharteries; aids passive recoil of lungsfollowing inspiration.
Location: Walls of large arteries;within certain ligaments associatedwith the vertebral column; within thewalls of the bronchial tubes.
Elastic fibers
Aorta
HeartPhotomicrograph: Elastic connective tissue inthe wall of the aorta (250x).
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Cartilage
• Intermediate between dense connective tissue and bone
• Stands up to both tension and compression• Tough but flexible• Provides rigidity• Lacks nerve fibers• Avascular• Receives nutrients by diffusion from blood vessels
localized in connective tissue membrane (perichondrium)
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Cartilage
• Exceptional amount of tissue fluid• Approx. 80 % water• Chondroblasts – predominant cell type• Produce new matrix until skeleton stops
growing at end of adolescence• Chondrocytes – mature cartilage cells• Typically found in small groups with in cavities
- lacunae
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3 Varieties of Cartilage
1. Hyaline Cartilage –- Most abundant in body- Matrix – amorphous and glassy- Chondrocytes – 1-10% of cartilage- Firm support with some pliability- Articulate cartilage = ends of bones- Springy pads – absorb compression- Tip of nose- Connect ribs to sternum- Embryonic skeleton until bond formed
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Figure 4.8g
(g) Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but firmmatrix; collagen fibers form animperceptible network; chondroblastsproduce the matrix and when mature(chondrocytes) lie in lacunae.
Function: Supports and reinforces;has resilient cushioning properties;resists compressive stress.
Location: Forms most of theembryonic skeleton; covers the endsof long bones in joint cavities; formscostal cartilages of the ribs; cartilagesof the nose, trachea, and larynx.
Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from thetrachea (750x).
Costalcartilages
Chondrocytein lacuna
Matrix
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3 Varieties of Cartilage
2. Elastic Cartilage – - Nearly identical to hyaline- More elastic fibers- Strength and exceptional stretch ability
required- “skeletons” of external ear and epiglottis
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Figure 4.8h
(h) Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyalinecartilage, but more elastic fibersin matrix.
Function: Maintains the shapeof a structure while allowinggreat flexibility.
Location: Supports the externalear (pinna); epiglottis.
Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage fromthe human ear pinna; forms the flexibleskeleton of the ear (800x).
Chondrocytein lacuna
Matrix
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3 Varieties of Cartilage
3. Fibrocartilage – - Structural intermediate between hyaline and dense
regular- Rows of chondrocytes – alternated with thick collagen
fibers- Resists tension well- Strong support and ability to withstand heavy pressure- Intervertebral discs- Spongy cartilage of knee
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Figure 4.8i
(i) Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar tobut less firm than that in hyalinecartilage; thick collagen fiberspredominate.
Function: Tensile strengthwith the ability to absorbcompressive shock.
Location: Intervertebral discs;pubic symphysis; discs of kneejoint.
Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of anintervertebral disc (125x). Special stainingproduced the blue color seen.
Intervertebraldiscs
Chondrocytesin lacunae
Collagenfiber
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Bone
• Osseous tissue• Support and protect body structures • Provide cavities for fat, • Storage and synthesis of blood cells• Similar to cartilage• Added to matrix elements – inorganic calcium
salts
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Bone
• Osteoblasts – produce organic portion of bone matrix and bone salts are deposited on and between fibers
• Mature bone cells – osteocytes
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Figure 4.8j
(j) Others: bone (osseous tissue)
Description: Hard, calcifiedmatrix containing many collagenfibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae.Very well vascularized.
Function: Bone supports andprotects (by enclosing);provides levers for the musclesto act on; stores calcium andother minerals and fat; marrowinside bones is the site for bloodcell formation (hematopoiesis).Location: Bones
Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional viewof bone (125x).
Lacunae
Lamella
Centralcanal
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Blood
• Fluid within blood vessels• Atypical connective tissue• Classified as connective tissue because it
comes from mesenchyme• Blood cells surrounded by nonliving fluid
matrix called blood plasma• RBS or erythrocytes• Scattered WBCs
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Figure 4.8k
(k) Others: blood
Description: Red and whiteblood cells in a fluid matrix(plasma).
Function: Transport ofrespiratory gases, nutrients,wastes, and other substances.
Location: Contained withinblood vessels.
Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1860x); twowhite blood cells (neutrophil in upper left and lymphocytein lower right) are seen surrounded by red blood cells.
Neutrophil
Red bloodcells
Lymphocyte
Plasma
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Nervous Tissue
• Brain, spinal cord, and nerves• Regulate and control body function• 2 major cell types – Neurons– Supporting cells
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Nervous Tissue
1. Neurons – highly specialized nerve cells- Generate and conduct nerve impulses- Branching cells with cytoplasmic processes- Processes allow cell to:
- Respond to stimuli- Transmit electrical impulses
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Nervous Tissue
2. Supporting cells – non-conducting sells that support, insulate, and protect neurons
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Figure 4.9
Photomicrograph: Neurons (350x)
Function: Transmit electricalsignals from sensory receptorsand to effectors (muscles andglands) which control their activity.
Location: Brain, spinalcord, and nerves.
Description: Neurons arebranching cells; cell processesthat may be quite long extend fromthe nucleus-containing cell body;also contributing to nervous tissueare nonirritable supporting cells(not illustrated).
Dendrites
Neuron processes Cell body
Axon
Nuclei ofsupportingcells
Cell bodyof a neuron
Neuronprocesses
Nervous tissue
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Muscle Tissue
• Highly cellular, well vascularized tissues• Muscle cell process – myofilaments – actin
and myosin – bring about movement and contraction
• 3 kinds of cells– Muscle– Cardiac– Skeletal
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Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal Muscle – • Forms flesh of body• Contracts – pulls on bones or skin• Muscle cells – muscle fibers – – Long cylindrical cells– striated or branded in appearance– Many nuclei
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Figure 4.10a
(a) Skeletal muscle
Description: Long, cylindrical,multinucleate cells; obviousstriations.
Function: Voluntary movement;locomotion; manipulation of theenvironment; facial expression;voluntary control.
Location: In skeletal musclesattached to bones oroccasionally to skin.
Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 460x).Notice the obvious banding pattern and thefact that these large cells are multinucleate.
Nuclei
Striations
Part ofmuscle fiber (cell)
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Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac Muscle – • Found in walls of the heart• Contractions propel blood through blood vessels
to all parts of the body• Striated• Generally uninucleate• Branching cells fit tightly together at unique
junctions, intercalated discs• involuntary
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Figure 4.10b
(b) Cardiac muscle
Description: Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate atspecialized junctions (intercalated discs).
Function: As it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control.Location: The walls of the heart.
Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (500X);notice the striations, branching of cells, andthe intercalated discs.
Intercalateddiscs
Striations
Nucleus
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Muscle Tissue
• Smooth Muscle –• No visible striations • Spindle shaped with one centrally located
nucleus• Found in walls of hallow organs: digestive and
respiratory tracts, uterus, blood vessels, etc.• Squeezes substances through the organs by
contracting and relaxing• Voluntary – under consious control
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Figure 4.10c
(c) Smooth muscle
Description: Spindle-shapedcells with central nuclei; nostriations; cells arranged closely to form sheets.
Function: Propels substancesor objects (foodstuffs, urine,a baby) along internal passage-ways; involuntary control.Location: Mostly in the wallsof hollow organs.
Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (200x).
Smoothmusclecell
Nuclei
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Covering and Lining Membrane
• 3 types – – cutaneous– Mucous– Serous
• Continuous multicellular sheets composed of 2 – primary tissues
• epithelium bound to underlying connective tissue
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Cutaneous Membranes
• Skin• Organ system consisting of keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)• Attached to a thick layer of dense irregular
connective tissue • Exposed to air• Dry membrane
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Figure 4.11a
Cutaneousmembrane(skin)
(a) Cutaneous membrane (the skin)covers the body surface.
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Mucous Membrane
• Mucosae• Line body cavities open to the exterior• Digestives, respiratory, and urogenital tracts• Wet ‘moist” membranes bathed by body secretions• Either stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelia• Directly underlined by loose connective tissue – lamina
propria• 3rd deeper layer of smooth muscle• Doesn't always secrete mucus – urinary tract
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Figure 4.11b
Mucosa ofnasal cavity
Mucosa oflung bronchi
Mucosa ofmouth
Esophaguslining
(b) Mucous membranes line body cavitiesopen to the exterior.
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Serosa Membranes
• Serosae• Moist membranes in ventral body cavity• Consists of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)• Resting on a thin layer of loose connective tissue
(areolar)• Thin, clear serosa fluid lubrication• Named according to function
– Pleura – lungs– Pericardium – heart– Peritoneums – abdominopelvic and viscera
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Figure 4.11c
Parietalpericardium
Visceralpericardium
(c) Serous membranes line body cavitiesclosed to the exterior.
Parietalperitoneum
Visceralperitoneum
ParietalpleuraVisceralpleura
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Tissue Repair
• Inflammatory response – nonspecific• Immune response – specific• Steps
1. Regeneration2. Fibrosis
- Depends on 1. Type of issue injured2. Severity of injury
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Tissue Repair
1. Inflammation sets stage- Tissue trauma – injured cells - Macrophages, mast cells, and others –
release inflammatory chemicals- Capillaries dilate and become permeable- Allows WBC to seep into area- Construct clot
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Figure 4.12, step 1
Scab
Blood clot inincised wound
Epidermis
Vein
Inflammatorychemicals
Inflammation sets the stage:• Severed blood vessels bleed and inflammatory chemicals are
released.• Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white
blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins and other plasma proteinsto seep into the injured area.
• Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.
Migrating whiteblood cell
Artery
1
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Tissue Repair
2. Organization restores blood Suppy – - Organization – blot clot replaced by
granulation tissue – delicate pink tissue- Cappillaries lay down new bed- Granulation tissue scar tissue
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Figure 4.12, step 2
Regeneratingepithelium
Area ofgranulationtissueingrowth
FibroblastMacrophage
Organization restores the blood supply:• The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores
the vascular supply.• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap.• Macrophages phagocytize cell debris.• Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the
granulation tissue.
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Tissue Repair
• Regeneration and fibrosis– The scab detaches– Fibrous tissue matures; epithelium thickens and
begins to resemble adjacent tissue– Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with
underlying scar tissue
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Figure 4.12, step 3
Regeneratedepithelium
Fibrosedarea
Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair:• The fibrosed area matures and contracts; the epitheliumthickens.• A fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area ofscar tissue results.
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Regenerative Capacity• Epithelial• Bond• Areolar connective• Dense irregular• Blood forming
• Smooth muscle• Dense irregular
• Skeletal• Cartilage
• Caridac• Nervous
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Developmental Aspects
• Primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm– Formed early in embryonic development– Specialize to form the four primary tissues• Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm• Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm• Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers
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Figure 4.13
MesodermEndoderm
16-day-old embryo(dorsal surface view)
Epithelium
Nervous tissue(from ectoderm)
Muscle and connectivetissue (mostly frommesoderm)
Ectoderm
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Cancer
• Cells fail to follow normal controls of cell division• Multiply excessively• Neoplasm – mass of proliferating cells• Classified as benign ‘kindly” or malignant “bad”• Benign – concentrated – 1 area, grows slowly• Malignant – grows restlessly, become killers• Metastasis – ability to travel to other parts of the
body
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Carcinogens
• Cancer causers• Physical factors – radiation, viral infections, chemicals,
etc. – All cause mutations – changes in DNA alter gene expression
• Oncogenes – cancer causing genes• Protooncogenes – benign forms of oncogenes• Fragile sites – when exposed to carcinogens – convert to
oncogenes• Loss of enzymatic controls• Cells become evasive and metastasize
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Tumor Suppressor Genes
• Anti-oncogenes• Suppress cancer by inactivating carcinogens• Aid in DNA repair• Enhance immune response• 2 important ones:– p53 – – p16 – cancer results in loss or malfunction of
these 2 genes
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Cancer Treatments
Diagnosis – 1. Screening procedures2. Biopsy3. Tests to determine extent of cancer- Designated stage 1- 4- 1 – best probability of cure- 4 – worst probability
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New Therapies
• Old – cut, burn, poison• New – – Targeted drugs – interrupt signaling pathway of cancer
growth– Drugs/radiation precisely to cancer sparing normal tissue– Genetically modified immune cells to target cancer cells– Drugs – that target cancer cells biogenetics– Others – starve cancer cells– Also – cancer vaccines