chapter 4 ecology of weeds in rice...
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Chapter 4
Ecology of Weeds in Rice Fields Rice is the most important cereal crop in the developing world and is the staple
food of over half of the world’s population (Juliano, 1993). Rice cultivation is thought to
be the oldest form of intensive agriculture by man (Fernando, 1977). The geographical site
of rice domestication is not yet definitely known and hence remains a matter of conjecture.
It is general belief that rice cultivation in Sri Lanka was started by Indo-Aryan immigrants
before about 540 B.C (more than 2500 years ago), where it was probably grown as a dry
land crop (Grist, 1965; Perera, 1980).
Rice-growing environment is varying drastically within countries. Therefore,
scientists and specialists from different disciplines and parts of the rice-growing world
formed an international committee to determine terminology for rice growing ecosystems.
Khush (1984) described the outcome, where the world rice land environments are
classified into five major categories based on water regime, drainage, temperature, soil
type and topography.
India is the largest rice growing country, over 43 percent population has been
dependent on rice as food grain. Rice is grown under four different ecological zones, with
the irrigated ecology accounting for the largest area and highest production and
productivity closely followed by rainfed shallow lowlands. Rainfed upland is just one half
of the rainfed lowland area that produces less than one fifth of it. Region-wise, the
predominantly rainfed eastern zone accounts for the largest area and production but with
the lowest productivity, while the largely irrigated north and south zones together
accounting for slightly less area produce one and a half times more than that of eastern
India with a distinct yield edge. Western Ghat region of Maharashtra is under rain fed
conditions and its ecological parameters were not studied so far.
Present ecological study of weeds from rice field has been carried out in ten sites.
Bhor and Velhe talukas of Pune district are rich in rice cultivation. Five localities were
selected for experiment namely Karanje, Karnawad, Kiwat, Nigudghar and Salekarvasti
from Bhor. Similarly in Velhe taluka Ambawane, Gujawani, Pabe, Vinzar and Wanjale
were selected as representative villages.
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• Soil Sample Collection and Analysis:
Soil is the outer loose material of earth’s surface which is distinctly different from
the underlying bedrock and the region which support plant life. Agriculturally, soil is the
region which supports the plant life by providing mechanical support and nutrients
required for growth. It is the region where most of the physical, biological and biochemical
reactions related to decomposition of organic weathering of parent rock takes place. Soil is
an admixture of five major components viz. organic matter, mineral matter, soil-air, soil
water and soil microorganisms/living organisms. The amount of these components varies
with locality and climate. Different types of inorganic compounds containing various
minerals are present in soil. Amongst them the dominant minerals are Silicon, Aluminum,
iron and others like Carbon, Calcium, Potassium, Manganese, Sodium, Sulphur,
Phosphorus etc. are in trace amount. Rice grown areas are essential to know the
physiochemical properties present in the soil. In this connection, Soil samples from 10 sites
of both the talukas were collected and analysed for physiochemical parameters such as pH,
EC, organic carbon, N, P and K. It is also essential to know the Zn, Cu, Iron and
Manganese present in the soil.
Table 4.1. Soil analysis
Taluka Village pH EC N % P % K % Zn Cu Fe Mn
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)Bhor Karanje 7.18 0.12 0.43 0.001 0.016 0.81 7.00 4.00 11.20
Karnawad 6.20 0.08 0.36 0.014 0.032 1.31 7.00 17.00 31.40 Kiwat 7.17 0.18 0.25 0.007 0.011 0.64 6.00 5.00 3.20 Nigudghar 5.19 0.10 0.54 0.013 0.021 2.45 10.60 54.00 14.30 Salekarvasti 6.80 0.21 0.32 0.011 0.084 1.98 6.50 1.00 32.40
Velhe Ambavane 7.20 0.22 0.22 0.013 0.10 2.28 7.30 15.00 29.90 Gunjavane 6.80 0.08 0.13 0.012 0.13 0.70 4.90 17.00 28.80 Pabe 5.56 0.11 0.56 0.008 0.09 1.17 6.70 55.00 28.70 Vinzar 7.34 0.20 0.30 0.006 0.11 4.20 9.40 17.00 31.80 Wanjale 6.60 0.11 1.34 0.009 0.11 1.70 11.60 41.00 34.60
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Micro- elements in soils:
Soils have been defined differently by geologists, agriculturists, chemists,
engineers, environmentalists and soil scientists but the commonly accepted definition of
soil is that, “Soil is natural body formed out of weathered material and it is defined as a
three dimensional body at the earth surface which supports plants and distinct layers of
mineral and organic components “(Kale and Gupta, 2001). Parent materials of soil play a
key role in concentrating various micro-elements (including heavy metals) in the soils by
releasing them into the soils during soil formation processes. Metals like Zn, Cu, Mn and
Fe naturally enter into the soils due to weathering of parent material. Present study is an
attempt made to know micro-elements in different soil types from 10 rice growing sites of
Bhor and Velhe talukas of Pune District.
I.2 Soil micro-flora:
Soil is an excellent culture media for the growth and development of various
microorganisms. Soil is not an inert static material but a medium pulsating with life. Soil is
now believed to be dynamic or living system. Soil contains several distinct groups of
microorganisms and amongst them bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, protozoa and
viruses are the most important. But bacteria are more numerous than any other kinds of
microorganisms. Microorganisms form a very small fraction of the soil mass and occupy a
volume of less than one percent. In the upper layer of soil (top soil up to 10-30 cm depth
i.e. Horizon A), the microbial population is very high which decreases with depth of soil.
Each organism or a group of organisms are responsible for a specific change /
transformation in the soil. The final effect of various activities of microorganisms in the
soil is to make the soil fit for the growth and development of higher plants. Soil flora
(micro flora) e.g. Bacteria, fungi, Actinomycetes, Algae etc. Relative proportion /
percentage of various soil microorganisms are: Bacteria-aerobic (70%), Anaerobic (13%),
Actinomycetes (13%), Fungi/moulds (3%) and others (Algae Protozoa viruses) 0.2-0.8 %.
Soil organisms play key role in the nutrient transformations. In present study soil samples
from four locations from Bhor and Velhe were studied for their micro-flora in relation to
bio-chemical results (Plate 4.1).
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Table 4.2 Colony characters:
Sample
description
Salekarvasti Kiwat Wanjale Pabe
Media Luria Agar. Luria Agar Luria Agar Luria Agar
Size 0.5 cm o.2 cm 0.1 cm 0.5 cn
Shape Circular Circular Circular Irregular
Colour Off white Off white Chalky white Off white
Elevation Flat Flat Flat Flat
Consistency Butyrous Butyrous Butyrous Butyrous
Opacity Opaque Opaque Opaque Translucent
Margin Entire Entire Entire Wavy
Incubation time
and temp.
24 hrs at 37 o c 24 hrs at 37 o c 24 hrs at 37 o c 24 hrs at 37 o c
Gram staining Gram postive
cocci
Gram negative
short rods
Gram negative
Short rods
Gram negative
Short thin rods
Motility Non-motile Motile Non-motile Motile
Table 4.3Biochemical results:
Test Kiwat Salekarvasti Pabe Wangale
Mannitol No Acid gas Acid Acid No Acid & gas
Glucose Acid Acid & gas Acid No Acid & gas
Maltose No Acid & gas Acid No Acid & gas No Acid & gas
Xylose Acid No Acid & gas Acid No Acid & gas
Cellobiose No Acid & gas No Acid & gas Acid and gas No Acid & gas
Arabinose No Acid & gas No Acid & gas No Acid & gas No Acid & gas
H2S production Negative Negative Negative Negative
Starch
hydrolysis
No hydrolysis Positive No hydrolysis Positive
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The results obtained from colony characters and biochemical findings and referring
standard Bergey’s Manual of determinative bacteriology. Bacteria like Alcaligenes,
Halomonas, Rhizobacterium Meriisculus may be present in the soil samples.
II. Cultivation practices of rice:
Rice crop has wide diversity in their characters, growth pattern and maturity from
60 to over 200 days at varied elevations. Bhor and Velhe regions lie in Western ghat region
of Maharashtra having elevation from sea level 1500 m. This area falls under heavy
rainfall to medium rainfall.
The major crop in both areas is Paddy/Rice production during the monsoon season
(Khariff). Local people prepare land for rice cultivation with local agricultural implements.
Land preparation for seedlings of rice:
Selection of land for seedling preparation is defined by each farmer depending
upon land holding. Raab is traditional slash and burn agricultural practice and is the core
economic activity of the local communities comprising Kunabis, Konkanas, Varlies and
Mahadev kolis.
Seedbed preparation is performed by farm yard manure or dry cow dung of first
layer, second layer of plant twigs, Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub., Calycopteris
floribunda (Roxb.) Poir., Holarrhena antidysenterica A.DC., Tectona grandis L., Bridelia
squamosa Gehrm. and Terminalia crenulata Roth. and third layer of different types of
grasses leaf litter. It is not uniform in all the regions of Bhor and Velhe. It changes
according to the availability of the plant material. The process of raab cultivation were
analysed by taking interviews of 20 farmers in both the regions.
After clearing of ash from the seedbed, seeds are sown 2-3 days after Rohini
Nakshatra is initiated in a bed of 40-50 sq. m. depending upon the land holder’s seedling
transplanting area.
Fields are ploughed a number of times in standing water (puddling). Puddling of
soil facilitates easy transplanting of seedlings. Generally, seedlings are one to one and 15
cm in length and spacing between two spots is 22.5 cm, and at each spot about four
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seedlings are transplanted. Under the wet system of cultivation ,continuous standing of
water into fields is observed (Plate 4.2).
III. Land races of rice grown in the region
India’s rice possesses wide diversity in their characters. They vary in maturation
pattern from 60 to over 200 days and can grow in varied elevations. At one extreme is the
deep water rice growing between 6 and 15 cm of water and at the other rice is grown with
an annual rainfall of barely 500 mm. This traditional practice was propagated based on the
intimate knowledge of rice varieties then prevalent in ancient India followed by the
varietals choice (Sarawgi and Rastogi, 2000). Maharashtra state has rich diversity of rice
due to variation in soil, climate and choice of local people. Kulkarni et al. (1998) reported
25 land races of rice like Kala rice (aromatic rice), Varangal, Rajguda, Kolambi, Tam,
Raibhog, Halva, Garva, and White rice collected from Western ghat of Maharashtra.
In many parts of the Bhor and Velhe regions, different varieties are still chosen for
needs, definitely not for the yields alone. They were chosen for their ability to withstand
droughts or floods, resistance to pests, susceptibility to disease, salinity tolerance, time of
maturity, size of the grains, colour, aroma, taste, keeping qualities, nutritional values. Early
maturity rice landraces are preferred by farmers. Patil et al. (2009) recorded different types
of landraces used by local people for mitigating climatic conditions in Bhor region.
Special land races were selected like Kolamba with early maturity and less water
requirement, Taka, Varangal, Jeera and Ekakadi which are drought resistant and suitable
in coarse sand. Kalbhat and Basamati are scented type of rice and generally grown in the
middle of the field due to destruction of crop before maturity by wild animal like Bison.
The yield of rice is very low but has economic value. Some improved rice varieties are
Indryani, Komal, Poonum, Rashipunam, Ratnagiri-24, Shan, Anupum, Indum,etc. Local
landraces and improved rice varieties are playing major role in agriculture of Bhor and
Velhe (Plate 4.3, 4.4).
IV. Weeds along the bunds of rice fields:
In many parts of India especially in Chhattisgarh ,rice bunds cover about 10% area
of rice fields. The bunds are a potential source of useful weeds. More than 60 weeds in
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bunds are identified as useful weeds (Oudhia, 1999a). In ancient Indian literature, it is
mentioned that every plant on the earth is useful for human being, crops and animals.
Bunds in rice fields are rich in biological diversity. These weeds can act as allelophathic
effects. The term Allelopathy means the injurious effects of one upon another. It represents
that the plant against plant aspect of the broader field of chemical ecology. Allelochemicals
which inhibited the growth of some species at certain concentrations may stimulate the
growth of same or different species at lower concentrations. Positive (inhibitory)
allelopathic effects of any weed on other weeds can be exploited to develop eco-friendly,
cheap and effective ‘green herbicides’. Green herbicides containing green allelochemicals
which are an integral part of eco or organic farming (Oudhia, 1999b). They represent the
floristic composition of the area and may act as green herbicide. In present ecological
study of rice, weeds along the bunds are documented.
Total 208 plant species were recorded on bund of rice field, which includes Herbs-
118, Shurbs-31, under Shrub-2, Trees-39, Twiner-5, Climber-13. In this 208 plants, 173
genera, 208 species belong to 63 families. Dominant family are Fabaceae 20 genera and 27
species, Asteraceae 19 genera and 20 species, Poaceae 13 genera and 14 species,
Euphorbiaceae 7 genera and 7 species, Convolvulaceae 6 genera and 8 species,
Lamianeace 5 genera and 8 species, Malvaceae 5 genera and 7 species, Verbanaceae 5
genera and 5 species, Caeaslpinaceae 4 genera and 6 species (Plate 4.5).
Bund weeds are classified according to family, genera and species to know the
richness of plant diversity along the bunds in table : Some Pteridophytes are also recorded
on bunds like Adintum philippense L., Actinopteris dichotoma Kuhn.
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Table 4.4 Family, Genera and Species wise weed distribution along Bunds:
Sr. No. Family Genus Total
Species1 Acanthaceae 3 5
2 Agavaceae 1 1
3 Amaranthaceae 5 6
4 Anacardiaceae 2 2
6 Ancistrocladaceae 1 1
7 Annonaceae 1 2
8 Apiaceae 1 1
9 Apocynaceae 1 1
10 Arecaseae 1 1
11 Asclepidaceae 3 4
12 Asteraceae 19 20
13 Balsaminaceae 1 1
14 Bombaceae 1 1
15 Brassicaceae 1 1
16 Caesalpinaceae 4 6
17 Caricaceae 1 1
18 Celastraceae 1 1
19 Cleomaceae 1 2
20 Combretaceae 2 4
21 Commelinaceae 2 2
22 Convolulaceae 6 8
23 Cucurbitaceae 5 5
24 Cyperaceae 1 2
25 Elatinaceae 1 1
26 Eriocaulaceae 1 1
27 Euphorbiaceae 7 7
28 Fabaceae 20 27
29 Gentianaceae 2 2
30 Lamiaceae 5 8
31 Lecythidaceae 1 1
32 Liliaceae 1 1
33 Lytheraceae 3 3
34 Meliaceae 1 1
35 Malvaceae 5 7
36 Martyniaceae 1 1
37 Meliaceae 2 2
38 Menispermaceae 1 1
39 Mimosaceae 3 5
40 Moraceae 2 2
41 Moringaceae 1 1
42 Musaceae 1 1
43 Myrisinaceae 1 1
44 Myrtaceae 3 3
45 Nyctaginaceae 1 1
46 Orchidaceae 1 1
47 Oxalidaceae 1 1
48 Papaveraceae 1 1
49 Periplocaceae 2 2
50 Plumbaginaceae 1 1
51 Poaceae 13 14
52 Polygonaceae 1 1
53 Rhamnaceae 1 2
54 Rubiaceae 1 1
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Sr. No. Family Genus Total
Species55 Rutaceae 1 1
56 Santalaceae 1 1
57 Sapindaceae 3 3
58 Scrophulariaceae 4 5
59 Solanaceae 3 5
60 Teliaceae 3 5
61 Verbenaceae 5 5
62 Vitaceae 3 3
63 Zygophyllaceae 1 1
V. Weeds in rice field Weeds are group of plants of which are neither desirable nor economical values to
surroundings. They have special characteristic such as tolerance to environmental changes,
production of large numbers of seeds and high competitive ability, rapid growth through
vegetative phase to flowering, discontinuous germination and great longevity of seeds
(Monaco et al., 2002). Therefore understanding biology of weeds is very useful to improve
weed management strategies. In rice cropping system, knowledge of the biological
identification
distribution and life cycle of pre-harvest and post harvest as well as ecological aspects is
taken into consideration during the present study. Collection of pre and post harvest weeds
was made by using five quadrate of 1x1 m for each site. The weed diversity were recorded
and richness were calculated by quantitative estimation (Goel and Mitra, 2000) (Plate 4.6,
4.7) (Table 4.5 – 4.14).
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Table 4.5 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Karanje
VILLAGE - KARANJE F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Brachiaria reptans (L.) Gard 60 9.68 1.40 5.60 2.33 4.12 19.40HARVEST Chloris baraata Sw. 40 6.45 1.80 7.20 4.50 7.95 21.60 Cyperus difformis L. 60 9.68 2.20 8.80 3.67 6.48 24.96 Dactyloctenium.aegyptium (L) Willd 40 6.45 0.80 3.20 2.00 3.53 13.19 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk) Staf. 20 3.23 1.00 4.00 5.00 8.83 16.06 Digitaria stricta Roth ex R. & S. 40 6.45 2.80 11.20 7.00 12.37 30.02 Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl.) Panz. 40 6.45 1.40 5.60 3.50 6.18 18.24 Eragrostis uniloides (Retz.)Nees ex Steud 60 9.68 2.40 9.60 4.00 7.07 26.34 Impatiens balsamina L 100 16.13 5.60 22.40 5.60 9.89 48.42 Mnesithea granularis (L.) Koning & Soszf. 20 3.23 1.80 7.20 9.00 15.90 26.33 Mollugo oppositifolia L 20 3.23 0.80 3.20 4.00 7.07 13.49 Physalis longifolia Nutts 20 3.23 0.20 0.80 1.00 1.77 5.79 Smithia bigemina Dalz 60 9.68 2.40 9.60 4.00 7.07 26.34 Tridax procumbens L. 40 6.45 0.40 1.60 1.00 1.77 9.82 POST Achyranthus aspera L 60 6.38 2.20 3.77 3.67 5.03 15.18HARVEST Alysicarpus tetragonolobous Edg.J. 100 10.64 12.40 21.23 12.40 17.03 48.90 Ammania baccifera L. 100 10.64 15.60 26.71 15.60 21.42 58.77 Boerhavia erecta L. 40 4.26 0.40 0.68 1.00 1.37 6.31 Cardiospermum helicacabumL. 80 8.51 0.40 0.68 0.50 0.69 9.88 Celosia argentea L. 60 6.38 4.20 7.19 7.00 9.61 23.19 Crotolaria filipes Benth 100 10.64 3.80 6.51 3.80 5.22 22.36 Desmodium triflorum (L) D C 100 10.64 4.20 7.19 4.20 5.77 23.60 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. 20 2.13 0.20 0.34 1.00 1.37 3.84 Leucus celiata Benth 60 6.38 6.40 10.96 10.67 14.65 31.99 Parthenium hysterophorus L 80 8.51 3.60 6.16 4.50 6.18 20.85 Salvia aegyptiaca L 80 8.51 4.00 6.85 5.00 6.86 22.22 Sida acuta Burm. F. 40 4.26 0.60 1.03 1.50 2.06 7.34 Zornia gibbosa Span 20 2.13 0.40 0.68 2.00 2.75 5.56
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Table 4.6 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Karnawad
VILLAGE - KARNAWAD F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Biophytum sensitivium DC 60 20 2.60 20 4.33 13.20 53.20HARVEST Celosia argentea L 40 13.33 1.60 12.31 4.00 12.18 37.82 Commelina subulata Roth 20 6.67 1.40 10.77 7.00 21.32 38.76 Cymbopogon citratus(DC.) Stapf. 40 13.33 1.20 9.23 3.00 9.14 31.70 Cynodon dactylon pers 40 13.33 3.00 23.08 7.50 22.84 59.25 Digitaria stricta Roth ex R. & S. 80 26.67 2.40 18.46 3.00 9.14 54.27 Dinebra retrotlexa (Vahl.) Panz. 20 6.67 0.80 6.15 4.00 12.18 25.00 POST Ammannia baccifera L. 60 5.66 4.20 7.09 7.00 9.28 22.03HARVEST Blumea solidaginoides (Poir.) Dc. 40 3.77 0.60 1.01 1.50 1.99 6.78 Boerahaia erecta L. 80 7.55 3.40 5.74 4.25 5.63 18.92 Celosia argentia L. 100 9.43 2.80 4.73 2.80 3.71 17.87 Chrozophora prostrata Dalz 80 7.55 3.60 6.08 4.50 5.96 19.59 Chrozphora rottleri (geis) Juss 40 3.77 1.00 1.69 2.50 3.31 8.78 Cleome chelidonii L. F. 80 7.55 3.40 5.74 4.25 5.63 18.92 Cleome felina L.F. 20 1.89 0.20 0.34 1.00 1.33 3.55 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 60 5.66 2.40 4.05 4.00 5.30 15.02 Euphorbia hirta L 80 7.55 7.40 12.5 9.25 12.26 32.31 Indigotera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth 20 1.89 0.20 0.34 1.00 1.33 3.55 Salvia aegyptiaca L 80 7.55 4.80 8.11 6.00 7.95 23.61 Spharanthus indicus L 100 9.43 18.40 31.08 18.40 24.39 64.90 Tridax procumbens L 80 7.55 3.60 6.08 4.50 5.96 19.59 Triomfetta rhombidea Jacq. 80 7.55 2.00 3.38 2.50 3.31 14.24 Xanthium indicum Kooen 60 5.66 1.20 2.03 2.00 2.65 10.34
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Table 4.7 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Kiwat
VILLAGE - KIWAT F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Ageratum conyzoides L. 40 9.52 1.00 6.58 2.50 7.37 2.35HARVEST Boerahavia erecta L. 20 4.76 0.20 1.32 1.00 2.95 9.03 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L) Du petit Thou. 20 4.76 0.20 1.32 1.00 2.95 9.03 Cassia obtusifolia L. 40 9.52 0.60 3.95 1.50 4.42 17.89 Celosia argentea L. 40 9.52 0.60 3.95 1.50 4.42 17.89 Croton bonplandianus Baill. Adansonia 20 4.76 0.40 2.63 2.00 5.90 13.29 Cyperus rotundus L. 80 19.05 5.80 38.16 7.25 21.38 78.58 Dinebra retroflexa(Vahl)Panz 60 14.29 2.80 18.42 4.67 12.76 46.47 Lagascea.mollis cav. 40 9.52 0.60 3.95 1.50 4.42 17.89 Persicaria glabra (Willd) Gomez de la 20 4.76 1.40 9.21 7.00 20.64 34.61 Setaria pumila (Poir.) R. & S. 40 9.52 1.60 10.53 4.00 11.79 31.84
POST Alternanthera sessilis R.Br.Dc. 100 11.11 10.80 35.76 10.80 20.52 67.39HARVEST Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edg. 60 6.67 0.80 2.65 1.33 2.53 11.85 Amaranthus spinosus L. 20 2.22 0.60 1.99 3.00 5.70 9.91 Ammania baccifera L. 40 4.44 0.60 1.99 1.50 2.85 9.28 Caesulla axillris Roxb 80 8.89 2.80 9.27 3.50 6.65 24.81 Canscora diffusa(Vahl) R.Br.ex.R.&S. 40 4.44 1.00 3.31 2.50 4.75 12.51 Cassia absus L. 40 4.44 0.60 1.99 1.50 2.85 9.28 Cassia mimosoides L. 20 2.22 0.20 0.66 1.00 1.90 4.78 Crotolaria filipes Benth 40 4.44 1.60 5.3 4.00 7.60 17.34 Datura quercifoliaH.B.&K. 20 2.22 0.20 0.66 1.00 1.90 4.78 Flaveria trineriva (Sprenq) C.Mohr. 40 4.44 0.60 1.99 1.50 2.85 9.28 Impatiens balsamina L. 20 2.22 0.80 2.65 4.00 7.60 12.47 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. 20 2.22 0.20 0.66 1.00 1.90 4.78 Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajgopal 40 4.44 0.80 2.65 2.00 3.80 10.89 Solanum anquivi Lam. 20 2.22 0.20 0.66 1.00 1.90 4.78 Spharanthus indicus L 80 8.89 3.20 10.6 4.00 7.60 27.08 Trichodesma indicum (L.)Lenn 60 6.67 1.20 3.97 2.00 3.80 14.44 Trimfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 40 4.44 0.60 1.99 1.50 2.85 9.28 Verbascum chinese (L) Sant 80 8.89 2.40 7.95 3.00 5.70 22.54 Xanthium indicum Koen 40 4.44 1.00 3.31 2.50 4.75 12.51
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Table 4.8 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Nigudghar
VILLAGE - NIGUDGHAR F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Acalypa ciliata Forrsk 20 5.56 1.00 4.67 5.00 9.15 19.37HARVEST Commelina paleata Hassk 20 5.56 0.80 3.74 4.00 7.32 16.61 Cynodon dactylon Pers 40 11.11 3.60 16.82 9.00 16.46 44.40 Eriocaulon cinereum R.Br. 40 11.11 4.60 21.5 11.50 21.04 53.64 Impatiens balsamia L. 60 16.67 3.00 14.02 5.00 9.15 39.83 Leucas indica R.Br. 40 11.11 1.40 6.54 3.50 6.40 24.06 Oxalis corniculata L 40 11.11 4.20 19.63 10.50 19.21 49.94 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 60 16.67 1.00 4.67 1.67 3.05 24.39 Smithia bigemina Dalz. 40 11.11 1.80 8.41 4.50 8.23 27.75 POST Achyranthus aspera L 60 9.09 1.60 2.92 2.67 4.29 16.30HARVEST Ageratum conyzoides L. 100 15.15 4.80 8.76 4.80 7.72 31.63 Alternanthera pungens HB&K 20 3.03 0.20 0.36 1.00 1.61 5.00 Alternanthera tenella colla Va tenella Veldk 100 15.15 11.00 20.07 11.00 17.68 52.91 Argemone mexicana L 20 3.03 0.40 0.73 2.00 3.22 6.98 Croton bonplandianus Baill.Adansonia 60 9.09 2.00 3.65 3.33 5.36 18.10 Cyperus rotundus L. 100 15.15 20.00 36.5 20.00 32.15 83.80 Euphorbia geniculata ortea 40 6.06 0.80 1.46 2.00 3.22 10.74 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke 20 3.03 0.20 0.36 1.00 1.61 5.00 Portulaca oleracea L 100 15.15 13.40 24.45 13.40 21.54 61.15 Solanum nigrum L. 40 6.06 0.40 0.73 1.00 1.61 8.40
74
Table 4.9 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Salekarvasti
VILLAGE - SALEKARVASTI F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Acalypha indica Linn. 60 10.71 1.80 6.52 3.00 4.76 21.99HARVEST Andropogon pumilus Roxv. 20 3.57 1.20 4.35 6.00 9.51 17.43 Arthraxon lanceolatus (Roxb) Hochst 40 7.14 1.00 3.62 2.50 3.96 14.73 Celosia argentea L 60 10.71 4.20 15.22 7.00 11.10 37.03 Commelina subulata Roth 20 3.57 1.20 4.35 6.00 9.51 17.43 Cynodon dactylon Pers 40 7.14 5.20 18.84 13.00 20.61 46.59 Cyperus rotundus L. 40 7.14 1.60 5.80 4.00 6.34 12.28 Eragrostis bifaria Wt. 20 3.57 0.80 2.90 4.00 6.34 12.81 Impatiens balsamina L. 80 14.29 2.60 9.42 3.25 5.15 28.86 Oxalis corhiculata L 40 7.14 2.60 9.42 6.50 10.30 26.87 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 60 10.71 2.60 9.42 4.33 6.87 27.00 Setaria pumila (Poir.) R. & S. 80 14.29 2.80 10.14 3.50 5.55 29.98 POST Amaranthus spinosus L. 60 7.32 1.60 3.01 2.67 3.65 13.97HARVEST Alternanthera sessilis (L) R.Br. 100 12.2 4.00 7.52 4.00 5.47 25.19 Amaranthus viridis L. 60 7.32 1.40 2.63 2.33 3.19 13.14 Caesulla axillris Roxb 100 12.2 9.00 16.92 9.00 12.31 41.43 Centaurium meyeri (Bunge) druce 80 9.76 8.40 15.79 10.50 14.37 39.91 Cyanodon dactylon Benth ex Dc 40 4.88 2.20 4.14 5.50 7.53 16.54 Exacum pedunculatum L. 20 2.44 2.00 3.76 10.00 13.68 19.88 Gomphrena serrata L. 40 4.88 0.60 1.13 1.50 2.05 8.06 Leucus longifolia Benth. 60 7.32 2.00 3.76 3.33 4.56 15.64 Ocimum aratissium L 80 9.76 2.00 3.76 2.50 3.42 16.94 Parthenium hysterophorus L 100 12.2 13.00 24.44 13.00 17.79 54.42 Verbascum chinese (L) Sant 80 9.76 7.00 13.16 8.75 11.97 34.89
75
Table 4.10 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Ambavane
VILLAGE - AMBAVANE F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Alternanthera sessilis L. 20 5.56 0.60 3.7 3.00 7.74 17.00HARVEST Chenopodium album L. 20 5.56 0.80 4.94 4.00 10.32 20.82 Cyperus difformis L. 80 22.22 4.20 25.93 5.25 13.55 61.70 Digera muricata (L.)Mart. 40 11.11 0.60 3.7 1.50 3.87 18.69 Echinochloa colona(L)Link 40 11.11 1.40 8.64 3.50 9.03 28.79 Eragrostis uniolodes(Retz)Neesex steud 40 11.11 2.00 12.35 5.00 12.90 36.36 Eriocaulon cinereum R.Br. 40 11.11 3.40 20.99 8.50 21.94 54.03 Fimbristylis dichotoma(L) Vahl 40 11.11 1.60 9.88 4.00 10.32 31.31 Panicum psilopodium Trin 40 11.11 1.60 9.88 4.00 10.32 31.31 POST Cajanus scarabaeoides (L) Du. Petit. Thou 60 13.64 1.80 10.34 3.00 11.44 35.42HARVEST Chorozophora prostrata Dalz 60 13.64 1.60 9.2 2.67 10.17 33.00 Crotolaria filipes Benth 20 4.55 0.20 1.15 1.00 3.81 9.51 Lagasca mollis 0Cav 20 4.55 0.20 1.15 1.00 3.81 9.51 Laucas celiata Benth 40 9.09 1.00 5.75 2.50 9.53 24.37 Ocimum gratissimum L 60 13.64 2.20 12.64 3.67 13.98 40.26 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 100 22.73 8.40 48.28 8.40 32.02 103.20 Xanthium indicum Koen 20 4.55 0.20 1.15 1.00 3.81 9.51 Zornia gibbosa span. 60 13.64 1.80 10.34 3.00 11.44 35.42
76
Table 4.11 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Gunjavane
VILLAGE - GUNJAVANE F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Bacopa moneri (L.) Wettst. 20 5.56 1.80 12.16 9.00 18.85 36.57HARVEST Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.Sm.) Griseb 40 11.11 3.00 20.27 7.50 15.71 47.09 Brachiaria reptans(L)1Gard. 20 5.56 1.00 6.76 5.00 10.47 22.78 Caesulia axillaris Roxb. 40 11.11 0.60 4.05 1.50 3.14 18.31 Cassia absus L. 20 5.56 0.20 1.35 1.00 2.09 9.00 Celosia argentea L. 20 5.56 2.00 13.51 10.00 20.94 40.01 Eleusine coracana (L)Gaerth 20 5.56 0.80 5.41 4.00 8.38 19.34 Eragrostis cillaris (L)R.Br. 40 11.11 1.00 6.76 2.50 5.24 23.10 Lagasca mollis Cav 20 5.56 0.20 1.35 1.00 2.09 9.00 Smitha bigemina Ait Dalz 80 22.22 3.40 22.97 4.25 8.90 54.10 Sonchus oleraceus L. 40 11.11 0.80 5.41 2.00 4.19 20.70 POST Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edg.J. 40 10 1.00 6.25 2.50 6.94 23.19HARVEST Centaurium meyeri (Bunge) Druce 60 15 1.40 8.75 2.33 6.48 30.23 Chenopodium murale L. 40 10 3.00 18.75 7.50 20.83 49.58 Cleome chelidonii L 60 15 1.40 8.75 2.33 6.48 30.23 Commelina subalata Roth 60 15 2.60 16.25 4.33 12.04 43.29 Cynodon dactylon Pers. 40 10 2.60 16.25 6.50 18.06 44.31 Ecilipta prostrata (L) L. 40 10 3.20 20 8.00 22.22 52.22 Euphorbia geniculata L 40 10 0.60 3.75 1.50 4.17 19.92 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq).Ravan 20 5 0.20 1.25 1.00 2.78 9.03
77
Table 4.12 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village – Pabe
VILLAGE - PABE F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Acalypa cilliata Forssk 40 10.53 0.80 5.41 2.00 4.84 20.77HARVEST Amaranthus spinosus L. 20 5.26 1.00 6.76 5.00 12.10 24.12 Argemone mexicana L. 20 5.26 0.20 1.35 1.00 2.42 9.03 Brachlaria reptans (L.) Gard. 60 15.79 2.60 17.57 4.33 10.48 43.84 Commelina diffusa Burm.f. 40 10.53 1.40 9.46 3.50 8.47 28.45 Cyanotis cristata(L.) D.Don. 20 5.26 1.40 9.46 7.00 16.94 31.66 Digitaria stricta Roth ex R. & S. 40 10.53 1.40 9.46 3.50 8.47 28.45 Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl.) Bor. 20 5.26 0.60 4.05 3.00 7.26 16.58 Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaerth. 20 5.26 0.80 5.41 4.00 9.68 20.35 Impatiens balsamia L. 80 21.05 4.00 27.03 5.00 12.10 60.18 Sprobolus spicatus(Vahl.)Kunth. 20 5.26 0.60 4.05 3.00 7.26 16.58 POST Achyranthus aspera L 20 2.13 0.20 0.48 1.00 1.62 4.23HARVEST Alternanthera sessilis (L) R.Br.ex.DC 60 6.38 3.00 7.18 5.00 8.12 21.68 Amaranthus roxburghianus Nevski 40 4.26 1.20 2.87 3.00 4.87 12.00 Cassia uniflora Mill 40 4.26 1.00 2.39 2.50 4.06 10.71 Corchorus olitorius L.ex.steud. 80 8.51 4.60 11 5.75 9.34 28.86 Crotalaria filipes Benth. 80 8.51 3.80 9.09 4.75 7.72 25.32 Cyperus deformis L. 100 10.64 11.80 28.23 11.80 19.17 58.04 Ecilipta prostrata (L) L. 40 4.26 1.00 2.39 2.50 4.06 10.71 Ergrostis unioloides (Retz.)Nees 80 8.51 2.80 6.7 3.50 5.69 20.90 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L 40 4.26 1.20 2.87 3.00 4.87 12.00 Exacum pedunculatum L. 60 6.38 2.40 5.74 4.00 6.50 18.62 Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaerth 60 6.38 2.80 6.7 4.67 7.58 20.66 Plectranthus mollis (Ait) Spr. 80 8.51 1.80 4.31 2.25 3.66 16.47 Portulace oleracea L 60 6.38 1.60 3.83 2.67 4.33 14.54 Tridax procumbens L 40 4.26 1.00 2.39 2.50 4.06 10.71 Verbascum chinese (L) Sant. 60 6.38 1.60 3.83 2.67 4.33 14.54
78
Table 4.13 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Vinzar
VILLAGE - VINZAR F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Cassia uniflora Mill. 20 5.26 0.40 3.7 2.00 8.96 17.92HARVEST Echinochloa colona(L)Link 60 15.79 1.80 16.67 3.00 13.43 45.89 Eclipta prostrata (L.)L. 60 15.79 1.80 16.67 3.00 13.43 45.89 Eragrostis uniolodes(Retz)Neesex steud 60 15.79 2.20 20.37 3.67 16.42 52.58 Iscache globosa (Thunb) O.Ktze.Rev. 40 10.53 1.40 12.96 3.50 15.67 39.16 Portulaca oleracea L. 60 15.79 1.00 9.26 1.67 7.46 32.51 Prisicaria glabra (Willd) Gomez dla Maza. 40 10.53 0.80 7.41 2.00 8.96 26.90 Spheranthus indicus L. 40 10.53 1.40 12.96 3.50 15.67 39.16 POST Alternanthera tenella .colla Veldk 80 14.81 2.60 14.77 3.25 6.62 36.21HARVEST Amaranthus roxburghianus Nevski 40 7.41 0.40 2.27 1.00 2.04 11.72 Amaranthus spinosus L. 20 3.7 0.60 3.41 3.00 6.11 13.22 Argemone mexicana L. 20 3.7 0.20 1.14 1.00 2.04 6.88 Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philip 20 3.7 0.40 2.27 2.00 4.07 10.05 Blumea obliqua (L.) Druce 20 3.7 0.20 1.14 1.00 2.04 6.88 Boerahavia erecta L. 20 3.7 0.40 2.27 2.00 4.07 10.05 Canscora diffusa (Valh) R.Br. 20 3.7 1.00 5.68 5.00 10.19 19.57 Pogostemon deccanensis (Panigr.)Pers 20 3.7 0.20 1.14 1.00 2.04 6.88 Chloris barbata Sw. 40 7.41 3.20 18.18 8.00 16.30 41.89 Cleome chelidonii L. 20 3.7 0.40 2.27 2.00 4.07 10.05 Cynodon dactylon Pers. 40 7.41 3.80 21.59 9.50 19.35 48.35 Echinochloa colona (L) Link 60 11.11 1.20 6.82 2.00 4.07 22.00 Euphorbia hirta L. 40 7.41 0.80 4.55 2.00 4.07 16.03 Trimfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 60 11.11 1.40 7.95 2.33 4.75 23.82 Xanthium indicum Koen. 20 3.7 0.80 4.55 4.00 8.15 16.40
79
Table 4.14 Weed diversity of rice fields in Village - Wanjale
VILLAGE - WANJALE F RF D RD A RA IVIPRE Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.Sm.) Griseb 80 26.67 3.40 32.69 4.25 20.00 76.36HARVEST Caesulina axillris Roxb. 60 20 2.40 23.08 4.00 18.82 61.90 Cajanus scarbaeoides(L) Da Petit Thou 20 6.67 0.40 3.85 2.00 9.41 19.92 Digitaria stricta Roth ex R. & S. 40 13.33 2.20 21.15 5.50 25.88 60.37 Eriocaulon cinereum R.Br. 40 13.33 0.80 7.69 2.00 9.41 30.44 Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaerten 20 6.67 0.20 1.92 1.00 4.71 13.30 Polygala erioptera DC 40 13.33 1.00 9.62 2.50 11.76 34.71 POST Achyranthus aspera L. 20 4.55 0.60 4.62 3.00 12.71 21.87HARVEST Ammania baccifera L. 100 22.73 3.80 29.23 3.80 16.10 68.06 Corchorus olitorius L. 20 4.55 0.20 1.54 1.00 4.24 10.32 Cullen corylifolia (L) Medik Vorles 20 4.55 0.60 4.62 3.00 12.71 21.87 Ecilipta prostrata (L) L. 40 9.09 0.40 3.08 1.00 4.24 16.41 Euphorbia hirta L. 40 9.09 1.00 7.69 2.50 10.59 27.38 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 100 22.73 3.80 29.23 3.80 16.10 68.06 Salvia aegyptiaca L. 40 9.09 1.40 10.77 3.50 14.83 34.69 Trichodesma indicum (L) Lenn 60 13.64 1.20 9.23 2.00 8.47 31.34
80
Effect of weed control and weeds on rice and straw yield
In this connection, 1 x 1 plot were selected from 5 villages from Bhor and 5
villages from Velhe taluka. Weed index is low as 22.86 in village Karnawad, rice yield 270
gram with weeds and 350 gram without weeds. Higher weed index is 31.82 in village
Karanje, rice yield 300 gram with weeds and 440 gram without weeds.
In Velhe taluka, 5 villages were selected for rice yield with and without weeds.
Wanjale has 530 and 890 gram rice yield with weeds and without weeds respectively,
having weed index 40.45. On other hand maximum weed index is 51.11 in village
Ambavane having rice yield 220 gram with weeds and 450 gram without weeds.
Straw yield in without weed and with weed plots were recorded from Bhor taluka.
Village Kiwat has maxiumum 680 gram straw with weeds and 820 grams without weeds.
Similarly, Salekarvasti has minimum straw yield with 420 in with weeds plot and 700 in
without weeds plot
Velhe taluka has 5 village, Pabe village has minimum yield 90 gram straw in with
weeds and 260 gram without weeds. Similarly, 890 gram and 980 maximum yield of straw
in with and without weeds plots in village Wanjale.
Table 4.15 Yield of Rice
TALUKA VILLAGE RICE YIELD
WITH WEEDS (GM)
RICE YIELD WITHOUT WEEDS
(GM)
WEED INDEX
Karnawad 270 350 22.86 Karanje 300 440 31.82 Kiwat 310 410 24.39 Nigudghar 220 310 29.03 Salekarvasti 270 360 25.00 VELHE Ambavane 220 450 51.11 Gujawani 260 490 46.94 Pabe 50 90 44.44 Vinzar 240 440 45.45 Wanjale 530 890 40.45
81
Graph 4.1 Effect of weeds on rice yield in Bhor Taluka
Graph 4.2 Effect of weeds on rice yield in Velhe Taluka
050
100150200250300350400450500
Kar
anje
Kar
naw
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Kiw
at
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udgh
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karv
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Yie
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m)
Village
EFFECT OF WEEDS ON RICE YIELD
Rice yield with weeds Rice yield without weeds
0100200300400500600700800900
1000
Am
bava
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Guj
awan
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Pabe
Vin
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Wan
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m)
Village
EFFECT OF WEEDS ON RICE YIELD
Rice yield with weeds Rice yield without weeds
82
Table 4.16 Yield of Straw
TALUKA VILLAGE RICE STRAW YIELD WITH WEEDS (GM)
RICE STRAW YIELD WITHOUT WEEDS (GM)
Karnawad 560 680 Karanje 610 950 Kiwat 680 820 Nigudghar 540 780 Salekarvasti 420 700 VELHE Ambavane 450 480 Gujawani 490 670 Pabe 90 260 Vinzar 440 650 Wanjale 890 980
Graph 4.3 Effect of weeds on straw yield in Bhor Taluka
0
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Kar
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EFFECT OF WEEDS ON STRAW YIELD
Rice yield with weeds Rice yield without weeds
83
Graph 4.4 Effect of weeds on straw yield in Velhe Taluka
Experimental studies on viability of weed seeds was carried out in laboratory:
Most of the agricultural soils contain a large reservoir of weed seeds which
germinate over time. The number and type of seeds in the reservoir are determined by a
field’s cropping history, edaphic characters (moisture-holding capacity and pH), past weed
control practices, tillage and land preparation practices, rate of germination and seedling
growth of each species (Zamdahl et al., 1988). The soil seed bank is a product of the past
and represents the potential future of the above ground plant community. As a result, seed
banks are very important to the ecology of all types of communities (macro-phytes and
micro-phytes) and for recruitment of species, particularly those that rely mostly or totally
on non-vegetative means of reproduction.
Zamora and Thill (1989) stated that the soil seed banks are important components of
vegetation dynamics affecting both ecosystem resistance and resilience caused the viable
seeds on the soil surface and in the soil for many years comprised an enormous reservoir of
dormant and non-dormant seeds. There are important elements of seed bank dynamics like
seed bank depletion, unsuccessful germination, seed movement and seed mortality as a
result of ageing and attack by pathogens. The soil seed bank divided into surface seed bank
(active seed bank) and buried seed bank (dormant seed bank). Buhier et al. (1997),
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Am
bava
ne
Guj
awan
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Wan
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Yie
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m)
Village
EFFECT OF WEEDS ON STRAW YIELD
Rice yield with weeds Rice yield without weeds
84
mentioned that weed seed bank characteristic influence both the weed populations that
occur in a field and the success of weed management. Weeds produce a lot of weed seeds.
Most of the seeds entering the seed bank come from annual weeds (Rao, 2000). New seeds
may enter the seed bank through many sources, but the largest source is plants producing
seed within the field.
During the field survey, 10 sites were selected for collection of soil samples and
viability of weed seeds in laboratory was recorded. Some common monocot and dicot
weeds were growing in pot culture with given addition water for their survival. Common
weeds collected are: Smithia bigemina Dalz., Biophytum sensitivum DC., Polygala
erioptera DC., Alysicarpus teteragonolous Edgew., Alternanthera sessilis Br., Crotalaria
filipes Benth., Cassia absus L., Trichodesma indicum Br. Ageratum conyzoides L., Cassia
mimosoides L., Evolvulus alsinoides L., Corchorus olitorius L., Nicandra physeloides
Benth., Euphorbia hirta L., Celosia argentea L., Achyranthus aspera L., Oldenlandia sp.,
Eragrostis bifaria Wt., Commelina sp., Impatiens sp. , Arthraxon sp., Digitaria sp.,
Euphorbia sp., etc.
Table 4.17 Viability studies of Weed seeds
S. No.
Villages Total No. of Plants
Dicotyledons Monocotyledons
1 Salekarvasti 31 29 2 2 Karanje 60 - 60 3 Karnawad 36 2 34 4 Kiwat 16 11 5 5 Nigudghar 27 3 24 6 Pabe 22 - 22 7 Gunjavani 19 1 18 8 Wanjale 109 2 107 9 Vinzar 16 6 10 10 Ambavane 79 14 65
Number of dicotyledons and monocotyledons germination observed after one year. In
village Wanjale soil maximum growth of weeds is seen i.e. 109 out of which 107 are
monocots. Soil sample of village Kiwat shows minimum weeds 16, out of which 11 are
dicot and 5 monocot and village Vinzar out of 16, 6 dicot and 10 monocot weeds. Pabe and
85
Karanje soils have no dicot weed flora. This indicates that soil seed bank in above villages
from Bhor and Velhe taluka has no uniform seed viability.
Ash Value of rice husk and grains:
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) production is an important part of the national economy.
India is one of the world's largest producers of rice, accounting for 20% of all world rice
production. Moreover, the country has biggest area under rice cultivation, as it is one of the
principal food crops. Maharashtra is one of the major states in rice production; totally it
represented 1.48 M ha. land under rice cultivation which is 3.4% of total area of India and
gives 2.47 M.t of productivity. (Tiwari, 2002)
Demand for rice is growing every year and it is estimated that in 2010 and 2025
AD the requirement would be 100 and 140 million tones respectively. To sustain present
food self-sufficiency and to meet future food requirements, India has to increase its rice
productivity by 3 per cent per annum. (Thiyagarajan and Selvaraju, 2001) By considering
increase demand the productivity and maintained quality of economically impotent crop of
rice in India led the researchers to develop different cultivars and cultivation practices. The
performance of many quality characteristics depends greatly on environmental conditions,
sowing practices and weeds associated with it which alters the physicochemical properties
of rice (Araus et al, 1998 and Bryant et al, 2012)
Ash value/content is directly associated with environmental conditions and is of
great interest in defining optimal values of grain quality for a particular region. (Rharrabtia
et al, 2003 and Mansor et al, 2012) The perusal of literature shows very few studies have
taken into consideration the effects of cultural practices on weed distribution and rice
yields. Therefore, weed management strategies were chosen taking into account all the
factors affecting weedy rice populations in order to reduce the impacts of the weed to an
economically acceptable level.
In present study, Different five localities of Bhor and Velhe taluka from Pune,
Maharashtra were selected. The main objective of study was calculated effect of different
environmental conditions and different weed management practices on quality and
productivity of rice.
86
Rice is one of the major economical crops in India. The grain quality is most
important parameter and having direct impact on acceptance of it in domestic and global
markets. The performance of many quality characteristics depends greatly on
environmental conditions and cultivation practices. In fact, grain ash value with respect to
total ash percentage, acid insoluble ash percentage and water soluble ash percentage are
important quality features for rice which influences under high-transpiration environments.
In cultivation practices i.e. application of fertilizer, weeding practices and water
availability shows correlation with quality and productivity of rice. The total ash value,
acid-insoluble ash value and water soluble ash value for each control and uncontrolled
grain samples were determined by standard method. The mean of six readings and standard
deviation was calculated.
Table 4.18 Ash Analysis of Rice Samples
TALUKA VILLAGE WATER SOLUBLE ASH ACID INSOLUBLE ASH
CONTROL SAMPLE CONTROL SAMPLEBHOR Karanje 5.34 5.29 4.57 4.59
Karnawad 5.48 5.26 4.63 4.63 Kiwat 7.19 5.86 5.53 5.82 Nigudghar 5.68 5.18 5.40 4.61 Salekarvasti 5.52 5.50 5.26 5.34
VELHE Ambawane 5.63 5.64 5.08 5.05 Gunjavani 5.24 5.27 4.77 4.78 Pabe 6.57 6.38 6.17 5.38 Vinzar 5.20 5.58 5.10 5.48 Wanjale 4.06 4.06 5.07 5.07
87
Graph 4.5 Water soluble ash
Graph 4.6 Acid Insoluble ash
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
KA
RA
NJE
KA
RN
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KIW
AT
NIG
UD
GH
AR
SALE
KA
RV
AST
I
AM
BA
WA
NE
GU
NJA
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NI
PAB
E
VIN
ZAR
WA
NJA
LE
WATER SOLUBLE ASH
CONTROL SAMPLE
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
KA
RA
NJE
KA
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AW
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AST
I
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E
VIN
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NJA
LE
ACID INSOLUBLE ASH
CONTROL SAMPLE
88
Ash value
The comparative ash analysis shows that as the variation in environment and
weeding practices show positive correlation with ash value. In Bhor Kiwat show highest
ash value as compared to different locality listed in Table 1. and fig 1. Velhe, Pabe show
highest ash values compared to different locality listed in Table 2. and fig 2.
Other associates in rice field:
Algae The occurrence of blue green algae in cultivated paddy fields in India was first
reported in India in 1939. Studies in last 3-4 decades on this group of organisms have been
not only to understand their role in the conservation of nitrogen but also in the
understanding of the problem of nitrogen metabolism. The process of nitrogen fixation by
blue green algae is a highly oxygen sensitive reaction, can take place in the same cells that
release oxygen during photosynthesis. Ecologically these organisms are the most adaptive
in nature. They occur in all extremes of physically and nutritionally diverse habitats, both
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems besides being present as air spores. In the aquatic
environ hey can be found as thermophilic and cryophilic forms in fresh and saline water.
Among the terrestrial forms these can be found in all types of soils and even in sub aerial
situations (Anand, 1993). Algal flora is an idea of utilizing it as biofertilizer as an
alternative or supplementary source of nitrogen for rice is a potential biological system
under low cost rice production technology. The resulting nitrogen fertility by algal
application has permitted moderate but constant productivity in fields where no application
of Nitrogen fertilizer (Kannaiyan, 1993). In this respect, algal flora from rice fields from
Bhor and Velhe has been documented with proper identification (Plate 4.7).
Chroococcus minutus (Kuetz) Naeg.
Cells spherical, hemispherical or oblong, single or in groups of 2-4; sheath
common as well as individual, distinct and colourless. Cells light blue in colour.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Hatnoshi, Taluka: Bhor.
89
Gloeocapsa rupestris Kuetz
Cells in colonies, colonies many assigned irregularly in expanded mass. Individual
colony 2-4 celled, cells spherical with sheath, sheath yellow brown in colour with
concentric layers, cells blue green in colour.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Bare, Taluka: Bhor.
Aphanocapsa roseana de Bary.
Thallus blue green in colour, colonial, amorphous, mucilaginous, sheath
homogenous and colourless, cells rounded to oval loosely arranged.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Kari, Taluka: Bhor.
Oscillatoria princeps Vaaucher ex Gomont
Trichome straight, blue green or violet not constricted at cross walls, slightly
attenuated at the tip and bend. End cell slightly capitates, rounded with thick
membrane.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Vinzar, Taluka: Velhe
Nostoc punctiforme (Kuetz) Hariot.
Thallus light blue green, globose, filament densely entangled, sheath delicate,
hyaline, mucous trichomes broad, cells short, barel shaped. Cells are blue green
heterocysts subpsherical.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Margasani, Taluka: Velhe .
Anabaena variabilis Kuetzing ex Born et Flas.
Thallus light blue green, gelatinous, trichomes broad, constricted at cross walls.
Heterocyst nearly rounded akinetes away from heterocyst, smooth barrel shaped
long colourless.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Dhanep, Taluka: Velhe.
90
Aulosira firtschii Bharadwaja
Thallus dark blue green, wooly, attached to the paddy leaves. Filaments
unbranched, broad straight, sheath colourless, trichome slightly constricted, light
blue green in colour. Heterocyst intercalary and single.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Nigudghar, Taluka: Bhor.
Scytonema chiastum Geitler.
Thallus blue green, filaments slightly curved, broad, single as well as multibranced.
Pseudobranches long narrower than main filament, constricted at cross walls,
heterocyst single.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Ambawane , Taluka: Velhe.
Gloeotrichia intermedia (Lemm.) Geitler
Thallus smooth, rounded, light brown in colour. Filaments very thin, sheath close
to trichome, brownish, trichome broad, construction at the joints, cells flattened at
the base and barraled shaped. Heterocyst spherical, single and broad.
Occurrence: Paddy field of Bhutonde, Taluka: Bhor.
Fungi in rice field:
Plant pathogens are major cause of diseases in crops and plants. These plant
pathogens devastated our crops and led us to devise methods and to search cultivars for
resistant. In case of rice crop several diseases are reported such as Bacterial Blight, rice
blast, Aggregate sheath spot, Black kernel Brown spot, Downy mildew, False smut, etc.
During the field survey in rice fields from Bhor and Velhe, the infected paddy samples
were collected during dry season shortly before harvest period. About half kilogram of the
samples were collected from different villages in both talukas. Collected samples were
labelled, packed in polythene and taken to the laboratory for further identification. The
samples were identified at Agharkar Research Institute in the department of mycology and
plant pathology group.
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Table 4.19 List of Fungi from Bhor and Velhe Taluka
Sr. No. Name of Village Identified Remark
1 Nazare Nigrospora sphaerica (Sacc.) Mason
2 Bare Cladosporium oxysporum Berk. & Curt.
3 Hatnoshi Cladosporium tenuissimum Cooke
4 Kari Ephelis sp.
5 Sakhar Sporisorium sp.
6 Adwali Alternaria longissima Deighton & Mc Garvie
7 Vinzar Volutella sp.
8 Dapode Drechslera sp.
Bryophytes in rice field
The ecological distribution of many bryophytes is highly sensitive to factors that
affect plant water status. Many bryophyte species have evolved morphological structures
that enhance water uptake, water storage and/or limit water losses. This unique feature
plays significant role in natural ecological balance. Rice field ecosystem is a monoculture
agro-ecosystem. It is observed that Bryophytes play significant role in water conservation
during progressive growth of rice crop. Mosses play a role as inhibitors of soil erosion due
to their trample-resistant structure and their regenerative ability. Minerals supplied by rain
by leaching of the canopy and by through –fall are trapped by bryophytes, Thus bryophytes
play an important role in retaining minerals that might otherwise be quickly leached from
the soil. Bryophytes also play an important role in iron-ore deposition. Bryophytes are non-
vascular, thalloid plants adapted uniquely in their organization and physiology. Water is
primary requirement to keep these plants in correct and default physical and metabolic
state. Histological and physiological adaptations in thallus allows plants to absorb water
and food from remote sources such as rainwater, dews and leachates, soil surface, etc.
(Olarinmoye, 1974).
Rice fields are apparent habitats for bryophytes which grow on variety of the
substrates such as soil, rocks, trenches and walls around the fields, etc. Since bryophytes
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assist in maintaining moisture for a long time, their association with rice became an
important aspect to study. Maharashtra state has rich diversity of rice due to variation in
soil, climate and choice of local people. The association of bryophytes and the water
retention is known but such studies are not reported from the areas under study. The Bhor
and Velhe taluka of Pune district, Maharashtra are well known for the rice production. The
observations from this region revealed the presence of 7 bryophytes which contributes
towards water retention phenomenon (Gaikwad et al., 2012)
The rice field undergoes three major ecological phases - aquatic, semi-aquatic and
terrestrial dry, during a single paddy cultivation cycle. The aquatic phase of the rice field
represents the vegetative and the initiation of reproductive phase of the rice plant. While
the semi-aquatic and terrestrial dry phase correspond to the grain ripening stage of the rice
crop (Fernando, 1995). Thus, rice fields are dynamic environment that undergo rapid
temporal variation in relation to the growth of the rice plant and the hydrological status.
Therefore, as a whole, the ecology of rice fields is dominated by rapid physical, chemical
and biological changes.
The surveys were undertaken during years (2009-2011) from Bhor and Velhe
region during different stages of rice crop. The documentation of life cycle of Bryophyte
and rice crop was made periodically. The mature plant samples were collected in clean
plastic bags to establish their identity. The samples were brought in laboratory, dust was
removed and clean samples were identified using literature (Biradar & Shirke, 1992). The
specimens were prepared and mounted with standard technique (Azuelo, 2010). The
specimens were deposited in Agharkar Herbarium at Maharashtra Association for
Cultivation of Sciences, Pune (AHMA). Photodocumentation was carried out using
‘Olympus C7070’ digital camera. The observations were recorded systematically.
Descriptions of the specimens:
• Family: Ricciaceae
• Riccia cruciata Kash - Thalli monoecious, spongy cruciform when young, in
rosettes, 5 to 7 x 2 to 3 mm. dorsal surface light green at maturity, usually two
times dichotomously branched, obovate to oblong, dorsal groove shallow.
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Epidermis thin, scales are small, delicate purple weak, semi lunar. Rhizoids mostly
smooth, few, tuberculate. Antheridia globular with inconspicuous
papillae.Archegonia in a row, papillae prominent.
Locality: Bhor-Bare; Velhe-Dapode
• Riccia melanospora Kash - Plants are monoecious, small, greyish, dichotomously
brownish in overlapping patches. Thalli are 2.5 to 4.5 X 1 to 2 mm. Segments
linear, ciliate, cilia along the margins near the apical portion, dorsal groove deep &
narrow near the apex or slightly concave towards the posterior side; scales
prominent, overlapping, deep purple. Rhizoids usually smooth, sometimes
tuberculate. Antheridia are in mid dorsal row, with conspicuous papillae,
sporophytes embedded in thallus seen prominent on the dorsal surface.
Locality – Velhe – Ambavane, Margasani
• Riccia gangetica Ahmad - Plants are monoecious, dorsal surface bluish green,
margin purple when young, whitish at maturity. Thalli 1.5 to 2.5 X 1 to 1.5 mm,
one to two times dichotomously branched. Thalli linear-obovate, dorsal grove
conspicuous. Ventral scales prominent purple. Rhizoiids many, smooth &
tuberculated, Antheridia and archegonia are in 1-3 rows along with mid dorsal
groove. Antheridial papillae prominent hyaline projecting above the surface of the
thallus. Archegonial neck prominent, hyaline protruding above thallus surface.
Locality – Velhe- Margasani
• Riccia billardieri Mont. & Nees ex Gottsche, Lindenb. & Nees- Thalli
monoecious, once or twice forked overlapping or in incomplete rosette. Thalli
usually 4 to 12 X 2 to 3 mm. dorsal groove narrow anteriorly, which gradually
becomes flat on posterior side, epidermal cells hyaline and oval. Ventral scales
prominent, purple, semilunar rhizoids many, ascending from mid ventral side, 8 to
12 mm long, both the types simple & tuberculate. Cross section of thallus 4 to 6
times as broad as high, Antheridia in 1 to 3 rows ostioles conspicuous, projecting
above the surface of thallus, mostly on midrib, archegonia in rows, projecting
above thallus.
Locality – Bhor- Hirdoshi, Venwadi, Nandgaon
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• Riccia crystallina L. - Plants monoecious forming rosettes 12 to 20 mm in
diameter, May be overlapping, Generally yellowish green or reddish, Thalli spongy
6 to 12 mm long, dichotomously branched dorsal surface of matured thalli pitted
due to this organization of the epidermis, pits visible, dorsal grove inconspicuous
except at the apex, rhizoids mostly smooth few tuberculate.
Locality – Velhe- Dhanep
2) Family: Targioniaceae
a. Cyathodium tuberosum Kash - Individual plant is dioecious, 8 to 10 mm long &
the rosette is about same diameter; thallus membranous, fan shaped with entire
margin, dichotomous branching resulting into lobes. On the ventral side, smooth
rhizoids are evenly spread all along the surface of the thallus except margin, 8 mm
long; hyaline lines are more distinctly seen on ventral side except margin & tip.
Antheridial chambers are marginal in position to the distal end of the thallus on
dorsal side while the archegonia develop on ventral side individually capsules
develop in the fold of thallus appear black in colour at maturity.
Locality - Bhor- Ambeghar; Velhe- Dapode.
3) Family: Anthocerotaceae
• Anthoceros erectus Kash - Plants dioeciously erect grouped into tufts thick fleshy
spongy with a basal stalk expanding at the top into an open palm like structure,
female thalli are large 10 X 7 mm, stalk is shorter as compared to that of the male
thallus, male plants intermixed with the females, the inflated portion is cup like in
male thalli while it is funnel shaped in female thalli, margin of both male and
female thalli are highly dissected to form finger like projecting lobes.
Locality – Velhe - Ambavane
Bryophytes found to be grown on wet rocks, soil, vertical walls retaining the
moisture even after drying of the soil. R. gangetica mostly found to be associated
with R. billarclieri, C. tuberosum grows forming dense mats. These mats on
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vertical walls as well as ground field inhabits only in shade portions. All the species
showed their sporophytic phases at the time of harvest of the crop.
These species commonly shows strong association with Algal communities. The
association of Nostoc spp. with Anthoceros spp. enhances the formation of
hormogonia in Nostoc spp. (Campbell & Meeks, 1989). It also been reported that
the symbiotic association of Cyanobacteria helps in nitrogen fixation (Saxena,
1981). This helps to improve the quality and quantity of Rice.
During present studies, seven species belonging to three genera and three families
were recorded. Out of these, family Ricciaceae includes one genus and five species,
Targioniaceae and Anthocerotaceae includes one genus and one species each.
Floristic analysis has been complied in Table 1.
The association of Bryophytes retains the water and enriches soil of the rice fields. This is
a first report of Bryophytes from the region of Maharashtra in rice fields.
Table 4.20: Floristic analysis of Bryophytes
No. Family Species 1.
Ricciaceae
Riccia cruciata Kash 2. Riccia melanospora Kash 3. Riccia gangetica Ahmad 4. Riccia billardieri Mont. & Nees ex Gottsche, Lindenb. & Nees5. Riccia crystallina L. 6. Targioniaceae Cyathodium tuberosum Kash 7. Anthocerotaceae Anthoceros erectus Kash
Pteridophytes:
Pteridophytes are vascular cryptogams and form a neglected group of plants in
biodiversity as far as their economic value is concerned. It can safely be assumed that they
were the first land plants with a vascular system. Their food and medicinal values are
reported in earlier literature. The Ayurvedic systems of medicine referred by Sushruta (ca
100 AD) and Charka (ca 100 AD) recommended the medicinal uses of some ferns in their
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Samhitas. Ferns are also used by the physicians in Unani system of medicine (Uddin et al.,
1998).
Rice fields are apparent habitats for pteridophytes which grow on variety of the
substrates such as soil, rocks, trenches and walls around the field. Since pteridophytes
support in maintaining moisture for longtime, their association with rice become an
important aspect to study.
In the present study survey of pteridophyte in the rice fields from Bhor and Velhe
tauka including its identification, determination of micro habitat in rice fields and their
association was carried out. The documentation of life cycle of pteridophyte and rice crop
was made periodically. The plants were identified using literature. The specimens were
prepared and mounted with standard technique
The specimens were deposited in Agharkar Herbarium at Maharashtra Association for
Cultivation of Sciences, Pune (AHMA).
During field survey following specimens were recorded
1] Adiantum lunulatum Burm. f.
Family :- Adiantaceae
Roots are very thin, fibrous, about 10-15 cm long, reddish-black in colour, soft and
branched. Rhizome - Long, upto 2 mm thick, glabrous, prostrate or erect, dark reddish-
brown or a black in colour.
Frond - Rachis shiny black, simply pinnate, pinna roughly lunulate, subdimidiate, lower
edge nearly in line and oblique with its black shiny petiole, upper edge bluntly rounded
and more or less lobed, a few sori in a continuous line on the under surface along the edge,
with a false indusium
2] Marselia quadrifolia Linn.
Family : Marseliaceae
Aquatic fern bearing 4 parted leaf resembling '4-leaf clover' (Trifolium). Leaves
floating in deep water or erect in shallow water or on land. Leaflets obdeltoid, to 3/4" long,
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glaucous, petioles to 8" long; Sporocarp (ferns) ellipsoid, to 3/16" long, dark brown, on
stalks to 3/4" long, attached to base of petioles.
3] Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak.
Family : Selaginellaceae
Stems elongated, with numerous small leaves; creeping, and rooting from characteristic,
leafless, root-bearing branches (rhizophores); overtly dichotomising vegetatively;
dorsiventrally organized, with four ranks of leaves (with two rows of leaves dorsally, and a
row of larger leaves down each side); with strongly flattened branches; without secondary
thickening. Leaves ligulate; 4-ranked on the branches; of two kinds: those of the two ranks
on the upper side of the stem appressed and directed towards the stem apex, and those of
the two lower ranks larger and spreading laterally; about 1 mm long (on the upper side of
the stem), or 2 mm long (on the sides); appressed and spreading.
Heterosporous.Sporophylls ovate, cuspidate, keeled; aggregated into well defined terminal
cones. Cones sessile at the tips of the normal shoots (short, 4-sided). The sporangia basal
and subsessile on the adaxial surfaces of the sporophylls, non-septate.
4] Adiantum capillus - veneris L.
Family : Adiantaceae
The Adiantum capillus-veneris fern grows from 6 to 12 in (15 to 30 cm) in height;
its fronds arising in clusters from creeping rhizomes 8 to 27.5 in (20 to 70 cm) tall, with
very delicate, light green fronds much subdivided into pinnae 0.2 to 0.4 in (5 to 10 mm)
long and broad; the frond rachis is black and wiry.
5] Actinopteris dichotoma Kuhn.
Family : Adiantaceae
This species is found in hot, dry habitats, growing at the base of rocks and in
crevices, but also on deep soil in shady places in rice fields. The distinctive fronds issue
from a prostrate rhizome and are somewhat dimorphic. The laminae are 15-45 mm long
and fan-shaped with a spread of some 180 degrees, the tip of each segment bearing 2-5
teeth.
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Pammel (1911) compiled a manual of poisonous plants from Eastern North
America with brief notes on economic and medicinal plants which included some
medicinal pteridophytes. In Chinese system of medicine, many ferns are also prescribed by
local doctors (Kimura and Noro, 1965). Later on modern biological and pharmaceutical
studies were carried out on pteridophytes by different scholars. Banerjee and Sen (1980)
conducted the only extensive survey of antibiotic activity among the ferns and reported
about a hundred species having such property. Dixit and Vohra (1984) reported edible and
medicinally important pteridophytic species from India. Kaushik (1998) emphasized on the
ethno-botanical importance of ferns of Rajasthan, India. The ethno-botanical uses of this
unique group are of immense importance (Singh et al., 1989; Dhiman, 1998). The most
important studies on food and medicinal values of pteridophytes were conducted by Nayar
(1957), Hodge (1973) and Dixit (1974, 1975). Recently, Ghosh et al. (2004) reported some
edible pteridophytes as vegetables and medicines.
Exotic invasive weeds in rice fields:
General definition of weeds as unwanted plants grown in cultivated crop and
compete with storage of food material in soils. Classification of weeds is based on
indigenous weeds and exotic weeds established since long time and naturalized in our
soils. These exotic weeds introduced from other countries known as invasive weeds. These
weeds plants have escaped from its original ecosystem and are established in regional
floras. They are spread in the rice fields and displace native biota and threaten valued
agricultural crops and environment due to profuse growth.
During the weed ecological survey 44 invasive weeds were recorded. Exotic
invasive weeds are 44 occurred in Bhor and Velhe regions. They belong to 17 species, 39
genera, 44 species. All are herbs native to Brazil, Central, south America and few from
Africa, East Indies and Asia. Maximum weeds are from Asteraceae, Ameranthaceae,
Euphrobiaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae families. Aches or seed of Asteraceae
family are easily dispersed from one region to another by wind or transportation of food
grains. .
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INVASIVE MEDICINAL WEEDS FROM RICE FIELD:
The data generated from 20 local farmers using weeds as medicines. In this respect
19 weeds were recorded having properties like anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, anti-
tumour activity diuretic, astringent, tonic etc. Local people use some plant parts for kidney
stone, jaundice, skin diseases, cough and cold, piles, fever, burns, urinary disorders, etc.
Ageratum conyzoides L .
Family - Asteraceae Habit - Herb Local name - Sahdevi, Osadi
Part used - whole plant
Medicinal use - Root juice is anthelminthic.
A paste of root mixed with the bark of Schinus wallichi L. is applied on dislocated
bones.
The leaves are styptic. The dried leaves powder is applied on cuts sores and
ruftures caused by leprosy. A past of leaves is used as poultice to remove thorn
from skin.
The juice of flower heads is used externally to treat scabies.
Alternanthera tenellacolla
Family - Amaranthaceae Habit - Herb
Part used - Whole plant
Medicinal use - Aqueous extract of A. tenella is used for anti-inflammatory activity
& anti-tumour activity
It has antimicrobial & antiviral properties.
Argemone mexicana L.
Family - Papaveraceae Habit - Herb Local name - Pivala dhotra
Part Used - Root bark and stem latex
Medicinal use - Fresh bark or dried bark with betel leaves for jaundice & latex for
skin
disease& eye diseases .
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Bidens pilosa L.
Family - Asteracee
Part used - Leaves Habit - Herb
Medicinal use - The leaf extract is used as diuretic, inflammation of digestive tract
and anti-diarrhoeal. Also leaves are used astringent.
Cassia uniflora Miller
Family - Caesalpinaceae Habit - Herb Local name - Takala
Part Used - Leaves &Seeds
Medicinal uses - Seed power is used for wound healing. Leaf juice is used to cure
dysentery & diarrhoea.
Celosia argentea Linn.
Family - Amarantheceae Habit - Herb Local name - Kurdu
Parts Used - Whole plant
Medicinal Use - Plant extract is used to cure dysentery, diarrhea, acute abdominal
pains, inflamed stomach and treatment of tuberculosis. Leaf juice is applied on
wounds, sores, ulcers, skin eruptions, ulcers of mouth & relieves itching. Root juice
is given early in the morning for cure kidney stone. Drops of leaf juice are used for
tired eyes to clear vision.
Chrozophora rottleri (Geis.) Spreng.
Family - Euphorbiaceae Habit - Herb
Part used - Fruits
Medicinal Uses - The juice of fruit is used to cure cough &cold.
Croton bonplandianum Baill.
Family - Euphorbiaceae Habit - Herb
Part used - Seeds
Medicinal use - Seeds are purgative.
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl.) Panz.
Family - Poaceae Habit - Herb Local name - Meshkathi
Part used - Root & culm
Medicinal use - The culm is used in form of aqueous paste for face care and
decotion of root is used externally as well as internally in treatment of piles.
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Echinochola crusgalli (L.) Beauv.
Family - Poaceae Habit - Herb
Part used - whole plant
Medicinal use -The root powder is applied as a styptic to wounds. The leaf extract
is used as tonic & treating carbuticles sores spleen troubles cancer & wounds.
Eclipta prostrata (L.) Mant.
Family - Asteraceae Habit - Herb Local name - Maka
Part used - Leaf
Medicinal use - Leaf extract is applied on hair for strengthening them, making
black and prevents falling off. The farmers and tribal apply the leaf juice on the
cuts and wounds. There is popular opinion that the herb taken orally and applied
externally will turn the hair black. The plant extract is applied to the body in fevers.
Euphorbia hirta Linn.
Family - Euphorbiaceae Habit - Herb Local name - Dudhani
Parts used - Whole plant
Medicinal use - Plant decoction is given orally in the treatment of asthma,
bronchitis, coughs bowel complaints stomach ache & dysentery. Leaf paste is
applied in burns and scorpion stings. Leaf extract is consumed orally in gonorrhoea
and snake bites. A drop of latex is poured in eye for eye complaints and is applied
on eczema and scabies.
Leaf juice is given for the treatment of acute abdominal pains, infection of the
mouth and to Stops local bleeding.
Euphorbia indica (Lam.) Croizt.
Family -Euphorbiaceae
Oxalis corniculata L.
Family - Oxilidaceae Habit - Herb Local name - Ambushi
Part used - whole plant
Medicinal use - The whole plant is anthlelmintic, anti-phlogistic, astringent,
depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, lithontripic, stomachic & styptic. It
is used in treatment of influenza, fever urinary tract infection enteritis diarrhoea
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boils & pimples. The leaf juice applied for insect bites burns and skin piton 9t has
an antibacterial activity
Parthenium hysterophorous L.
Family - Asteraceae Habit - Herb Local name - Congress, Gajargavat
Part used - whole plant
Medicinal use - Root decoction is used in dysentery and used as tonic febrifuqe &
emmeriagogue. Parthenium is also reported as promising remedy against hepatic a
mebiosis. Parthnenin a toxin of Parthenium is found pharmacologically active
against neuralgia and certain types of rheumatism.
Portulaca oleracea Linn.
Family - Portulacaceae Habit - Herb Local name - Ghol
Part used -Whole plant.
Medicinal Use - Plant juice is taken orally to cure Liver kidney, bladder problems
& scurvy. It is also useful to increases milk flow in nursing mothers, good for
painful or difficult urination, relieves dry coughs, shortness of breath &
immoderate thirst cures inflamed eyes mouth sores. It is applied on swollen gums
fasten loose teeth. Leaf juice is applied for relieves pain from burns, healing of
wounds, promotes flow of urine menstrual flow, help in digestion & expulsion of
intestinal worms.
Sida acuta Burm.f.
Family - Malvaceae Habit - Herb
Part used - Root
Medicinal use - Root extract is used as rejuvenating nerve tonic & degenerative
disorders.
Tribulus terrestris L.
Family - Zygophyllaceae Habit - Herb Local name - Sarata, Gokharu
Part used - fruits, leaves and roots.
Medicinal uses - Fruits are used as tonic. Fruits power along with wheat flour is
given orally backaches and other complaints to ladies after delivery. Fruit powder
is also given orally in urinary diseases. Leaf juices are referred orally in stomaches.
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Tridax procumbens Linn.
Family - Asteraceae Habit - Herb Local name - Kurmudi
Part used - Leaves
Medicinal Use-Leaf juice is applied to check the hemorrhage of wounds and
Bronchial catarrh which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane with thick
phlegm .Leaf juice is given to cure dysentery & diarrhoea.
Xanthium strumarium L.
Family - Asteraceae Habit - Herb Local name - Landaga
Part used - Leaves, roots flowers and fruits
Medicinal uses - Plant is given to domestic animals for promoting milk yielding
capacity. Decoction of plant is given orally in leucorrhoea, menorrhagia and in
malarial fevers. Fruits extract is applied on small pox and are having cooling effect.
Flower tincture is useful in toothaches.
List of insects, vertebrates and invertebrates in rice field:
In case of rice fields many insects feed at different stages of growth. Grasshoppers belong
to the super family Acridoidea and Pyrgomorphoidea of the order Orthoptera and suborder
Caelifera. Acridoidea shows maximum diversity and constitutes only one family i.e.,
Acrididae whereas pyrgomorphoidea also has only one family i.e., Pyrgomorphidae,
widely distributed in India. Grasshoppers are of great economic importance, because they
constitute an important group of pests and pose a constant threat to cereal crops, pulses,
vegetables, orchards, grassland and forest plantations all over the world. Grasshoppers
cause significant damage to tree seedlings and agricultural crops (Joshi et al., 1999), hence
considered as oligophagous and according to host preferences classified as graminivorous,
forbivorous and ambivorous or mixed feeders (Mulkern 1967). Grasshopper can damage
rice in all stage of crop growth. Both nymphs and adults can feed on leaves by cutting the
edges of leaves. When found in greater number can feed even midribs and total leaves and
cause extensive defoliations.
However in present study some invertebrate pests attack on rice crop during the initial
germination and establishment phase of growth.
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1. Long horned grass hopper (adult one)
2. Robber flies
3. Meloid bettle (Mylabris sp)
4. Apis cerana (honey bees)
5. Wasp (unknown sp)
6. Cockroches (Pycnoscleus sp)
7. Earwia (probably Anrsolabis)
8. Chrysomelidae beetle (leaf eating bettle)
9. Homopteran bugs
10. Fruit fly (unknown sp)
11. Fishes
12. Earthwarms (Eukerria saltensis)
13. Aquatic snails (Isidorella newcombi): Grazing on young seedling of rice.)
14. Rodents.: These are serious pest for rice crops
15. Crabs & Frogs