Chapter 4Attitudes, Values, & Ethics

Attitude

Attitude - a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating an entity with some degree of favor or disfavor

Should poor performance be blamed on “bad attitude”?

ffect Physiological indicators I don’t like Verbal statements my boss. about feelings

ehavioral Observed behavior I want to intentions Verbal statements transfer to about intentions another dept.

M.J. Rosenberg and C. I. Hovland, “Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Componentsof Attitude,” in M.J. Rosenberg, C.I. Hovland, W.J. McGuire, R.P. Abelson, and J.H.

Brehm, Attitude Organization and Change, 1960

ABC Model of an Attitude

Component Measured by Example

ognition Attitude scales I believe my Verbal statements boss plays about beliefs favorites.

A

C

B

Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance - a state of tension that is produced

when an individual experiences conflict between attitudes and behavior

attitude

behavior

Two Influences on Attitude Formation

Direct Experience

Social Learning - the process of deriving attitudes from family, peer groups, religious organizations, and culture

Four Processes for Social Learning through Modeling

Focus on the modelRetain what was observed Practice the behaviorBe motivated

The learner must

Attitude-Behavior Correspondence Requirements

Attitude specificity - a specific attitudeAttitude relevance - some self-interestMeasurement timing - measurement close to

observed behaviorPersonality factors - ex. self-monitoringSocial constraints - acceptability

Work Attitudes: Job Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction - a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience

Organizational Citizenship Behavior– Behavior that is above and beyond duty– Related to job satisfaction

Work Attitudes: Organizational Commitment

Affective Commitment Affective Commitment

Continuance CommitmentContinuance Commitment

Normative CommitmentNormative Commitment

OrganizationalOrganizationalCommitment Commitment

The strength of an individual’s

identification with an organization

Values

Values - enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence

Values

Instrumental - values that represent the acceptable behaviors to be used in achieving some end state

Terminal - values that represent the goals to be achieved, or the end states of existence

Work Values

Achievement (career advancement)Concern for others (compassionate behavior)Honesty (provision of accurate information)Fairness (impartiality)

Cultural Differences in Values

Authority is a right of office and rank

Group input is important. Decisionsshould bechallenged.

FranceThe Netherlands

Handling Cultural Differences

Learn about others’ valuesAvoid prejudgingOperate legitimately within others ethical points of viewAvoid rationalizingRefuse to violate fundamental valuesBe open and above board

Ethical Behavior

Ethical Behavior - acting in ways consistent with one’s personal values and the commonly held values of the organization and society.

Qualities Required for Ethical Decision-making

The competence to identify ethical issues and evaluatethe consequences of alternative courses of action

The self-confidence to seek out different opinions aboutthe issue and decide what is right in terms of a situation

Tough-mindedness--the willingness to make decisionswhen all that needs to be known cannot be known and whenthe ethical issue has no established, unambiguous solution

Individual/Organizational Model of Ethical Behavior

Individual InfluencesValue systemsLocus of controlMachiavellianismCognitive moral development

Organizational InfluencesCodes of conductNormsModelingRewards and punishments

EthicalBehavior

Values, Ethics & Ethical Behavior

Value Systems - systems of beliefs that affect what the individual defines as right, good, and fair

Ethics - reflects the way values are acted outEthical behavior - actions consistent with one’s

values

Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism - A personality characteristic indicating one’s willingness to do whatever it takes to get one’s own way

Ethics

The system of rules that governs the ordering of values. Addresses such questions as:– What are the meanings of the ethical concepts of

good and right?– How can a person reach a conclusion about an

ethical dilemma?– Do ethical dilemmas have answers that would be

universally accepted as right, proper, and appropriate?

Ethics

Universalism – States that individuals should uphold certain values, like honesty, regardless of the results. The important values are the ones society needs to function. (Rule based or deontological, an inherent ‘right’ apart from any consequences.)

Utilitarianism – States that the greatest good for society should be the overriding concern of decision makers. (Consequential, or teleological) emphasizes the results of behavior.)

Ethics

Justice Theories – State moral standards are based upon the primacy of a single value, which is justice. Everyone should act to ensure a more equitable distribution of benefits, for this promotes self-respect, essential for social cooperation.

The Four Way Test

1. Is it the TRUTH?2. Is if FAIR to all concerned?3. Will it build GOODWILL and better friendships?4. Will it be BENEFICIAL to all concerned?

Moral Reasoning

The thinking processes involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong.

Kohlberg’s work (’63, ’75, ’81):– Divided moral development into three levels

Moral Reasoning

Pre-conventional– Judgment based solely on a person’s own needs and

perceptions

Conventional– Expectations of society and law are taken into account

Post-Conventional– Judgment based on abstract, personal principles not

necessarily defined by society’s laws.

Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemmas

Hypothetical situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right.

The Heinz Dilemma

A man’s wife is dying. There is one drug that could save her life, but it is very expensive, and the druggist who invented it will not sell it at a price low enough for the man to buy it. Finally, the man becomes desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What should he do and why?

Kohlberg’s Work

Stage 1 (Pre conventional)– Punishment-obedience orientation

• Fear of authority and avoidance of punishment are reasons for behaving morally.

Stage 2 (Pre conventional)– Personal reward orientation

• Satisfying personal needs determines moral choice.

Kohlberg’s Work

Stage 3 (Conventional)– Good boy-nice girl orientation

• Maintaining the affection and approval of friends and relatives motivates good behavior

Stage 4 (Conventional)– Law and order/authority orientation

• A duty to uphold rules and laws for their own sake justifies moral conformity

Kohlberg’s Work

Stage 5 (Post conventional)– Social contract orientation

• We obey rules because they are necessary for social order, but rules can be changed if there were better alternatives

Stage 6 (Post conventional)– Morality of individual principles and conscience

• Behavior which conforms to internal principles (justice and equality) and may sometimes violate society’s rules.

Carol Gilligan

“In a Different Voice”

1977, 1981

Moral reasoning is delimited by “...two moral perspectives that

organize thinking in different ways.”

Men: define morality in terms of justice.

Women: less in terms of rights and more in terms of standards of responsibility and care.

Gilligan’s Perspective:

Males = typically a justice/rights orientationFemales = care response orientationOrientations arise form rational experiences of inequality and attachment

Girls attached to and identify with mothersBoys attached to mothers and identify with fathers

Believes that:

That response orientation is of a higher order than justice rights orientationBecause Kohlberg’s theory is hierarchical with justice/rights the basis--women would necessarily show a less reasoned perspective on his scales. First studies of Kohlberg only conducted with men

The two perspectives are not opposite ends of a continuum,

“...with justice uncaring and caring unjust...”, but rather, “...a different

method of organizing the basic elements of moral judgment: self,

others, and the relationship between them.”

(Gilligan, 1987, p.22)

“One moral perspective dominates psychological thinking and is

embedded in the most widely used measures for measuring maturity of

moral reasoning.”C. Gilligan, 1987, p.22

Gilligan’s Theory

Based on two observational studies.

Study One: 25 college students

Study Two: 29 women considering abortion

Gilligan’s Research:

“shift[s] the focus of attention from ways people reason about hypothetical dilemmas to ways people construct moral conflicts and choice in their lives...and [makes] it possible to see what experiences people define in moral terms, and to explore the relationship between the understanding of moral problems and the reasoning strategies used and the actions taken in attempting to solve them.” Gilligan, 1987, p.21

Alternative Stage Sequence:

Three levels with transitional phases between each:

Level One:Level One: Complete concern for self (Individual Survival).

Transitional Phase: From self to care and concern for others.

Level Two

Level Two: Primary interest in the care of others (to gain their acceptance) (Self sacrifice and Social conformity).

Transitional Phase: awareness of self relative to developing relationships with others: responsibility toward their care and needs.

Level Three

Level Three: Nonviolence and universal caring.

“articulates an ethic of responsibility that focuses on the actual consequences of choice,,,the criterion of adequacy or moral principles changes from objective truth to ‘best fit’, and can only be established within the context of the dilemma itself.”

Murphy and Gilligan, 1980, p.83

Good Points:

Concept of care giving and nurturingRelationship of self to others, responsibilityEmpathyEffect on environment

Hawthorne Effect:

Subjects may try harder simply because they are in the control group.

Rosenthal Effect:

Researcher’s biases tend to sway the results to be what the researcher wants to find

“Rather than arguing over the extent to which sex bias is inherent in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, it might be more appropriate to ask why the myth that males are more advanced in moral reasoning than females persists in light of such little evidence.”

Walker, 1984, p.688

Cognitive Moral Development

Cognitive Moral Development - The process of moving through stages of maturity in terms of making ethical decisions

Level lPremoral

Level llConventional

Level lllPrincipled