CHAPTER 3

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF ETHNIC RELATIONS IN

MALAYSIA

Objectives

• To see the development of political parties in Malaysia

• To see how political parties contributed towards ethnic relations

• To understand the challenges faced by the country with respect to ethnic integration

Introduction

• The presence of ethnic groups/communities created a multi-ethnic society in Malaya/Malaysia -- each with their separate economic activities, places of residence, and school (for the children).

• Ethnic diversity – helped to shape political development.• The rise of ethnic-based (communal) political parties.• At the same time, there was also development towards

political “unity”.

MODERNISATION & POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

• The concept of modernisation – refers to the process of transformation & planned change

• 2 important aspects of modernisation+ political development

+ economic development • Political development

– The aims : to build a nation via top-down methodology such as• Internalizing national ideology• Educate the people on public policies• Inculcate a sense of nationalism

– The success of political development is measured by evaluating public policies.

ETHNIC PLURALITY & THE POLITICAL PROCESS IN MALAYSIA

Demography: – The unique ethnic composition shaped the socio-cultural & political

process.• Total population 28 million (2010)

• Malay 55%, Chinese 25% and Indian 7%• Sarawak• Sabah

• Occupations – Malays (Islam; rural; agriculture)

– Chinese (Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, etc. ; urban; business)

– Indians (Hinduism, Christianity, etc.; plantation, urban; agriculture, various jobs)

– Others (Orang Asli/indigenous people, Baba-Nyonya, Eurasian, Siam).

POLITICAL COOPERATON

• Cooperation during British rule– The British strategy towards a nation-state in Malaya

• Step-by-step effort (early phase, limited; after Malayan Union, spread out & big scale. Sabah & Sarawak assigned to the British)

• The power of the sultans, curbed (limited). The return of British to Malaya (after World War II) brought about

Malayan Union.• Malayan Union – a unitary state (Malaya) & equality (kesaksamaan)• Characteristics/features of Malayan Union

– Centralised power in the central government– Malay rulers lost their powers (except those related to Islam &

Malay customs & traditions) .– Citizenship based on the principle of jus soli (Latin: right of the soil).

LESSONS FROM THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION

• Spirit of nationalism (British/western powers not invincible, can be defeated)

• Inter-ethnic cooperation to achieve political objectives, e.g. UMNO-MCA-MIC.

• Opposition to Malayan Union resulted in the setting up of United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) on 11 May, 1946 led by Dato’ Onn Jaafar (Johor aristocrat).

• Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) formed in 1946, and Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), 1949 – readiness to work with UMNO

• 1st General Elections 1956 -- UMNO, MCA, MIC, won 51 out of 52 seats in MPP.

• Dato’ Onn left UMNO and formed Independent Malaya Party (IMP ) because UMNO did not agree with his proposal to open up the party to non-Malays. Tunku Abdul Rahman (a member of Kedah royalty) succeeded Onn Jaafar.

The Malays – Political & National Consciousness

• Opposition to colonial rule – started since Melaka time (Portuguese rule 1511).

• The opposition by the people and local leaders in the Malay states continued until the British rule

• Early 20th century – beginning of Islamic-based political consciousness among the Malays – the influence of Islah movement in West Asia on the Malay ulama in Malaya, also known as Kaum Muda.

• They taught progressive Islam in the house, surau, mosque, and also set up madrasah (religious schools).

• Among the well-known madrasahs : Madrasah al-Iqbal al-Islamiyah (Singapore) in 1908; Madrasah al-Hadi (Melaka) in 1917; Madrasah Al-Mashoor (Penang). Al- Mashoor produced a very important Malay political leader -- Burhanuddin al-Helmi.

• Early associations/organisations among the Malays focused on socioeconomic improvement (of the Malays).

• Kesatuan Melayu Singapura (KMS) formed on 14 May 1926 by English-educated Malays in Singapore.

• The main aim of KMS was to improve socioeconomic position of the Malays & to encourage Malay interest in politics.

Party Politics Among the Malays, Chinese & Indians

• Before the setting up of political parties, there was already political consciousness among the people.

• Among the Malays – based on Islam – the rise of state-based associations, and later, politically-inclined organizations (before the setting up of political parties).

• Among the Chinese & Indians – political consciousness was inspired by the political developments & struggles in mainland China & India before the birth of ethnic-based political parties in Malaya.

Party...

• Among the Malays -- May 1937, Malay-educated nationalist group, also influenced by the Indonesian nationalist movement, got together to form Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM) or Young Malay Union in Kuala Lumpur, led by Ibrahim bin Haji Yaakob.

• KMM was registered in August 1938.

Party…

• KMM was the first Malay political party in Malaya.

• Formed out of a need to unite the Malays. • Warta Malaya was the official organ of KMM.

Associational/Political Consciousness among the Chinese

• Unlike the Malays, this was based on political events & development in China.

• The Chinese labour first came to Malaya to seek wealth before returning home.

• Associational culture was already practiced since in China.• They also came with secret organizations/societies for the

purpose of protecting the interest & welfare of their members (and the labouring community) in Malaya.

• Hai San dan Ghee Hin were 2 famous secret societies operating in the tin mining areas in Perak and Selangor – a proof of associational consciousness among them.

Political consciousness & activities among the Indians

• The community was not active in politics before the war.

• Most were in isolated rubber plantations/estates – lack of information, unaware of any pol. development.

• A small group of urban Indians were politically conscious.

• They were the business & professional people – influenced by political changes in India.

Formation of Political Parties

• UMNO formed in 1946 – a reaction to British proposal for Malayan Union

• Between 1 - 4 March 1946, 41 Malay organizations from Singapore and Malay peninsular gathered in Kuala Lumpur (Selangor Club) to oppose the (British) Malayan Union Constitution.

Political parties..

• 11 May 1946, decided to form UMNO or Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu (PEKEMBAR).

• UMNO – a reaction to Malayan Union by the British.• Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) established on

27 February 1949. • At first MCA was more into community social

support & welfare work to give assistance to the affected Chinese community during the Emergency period (1948-61).

Political parties..

• The Indian community formed Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) on August 1946, led by John A. Thivy.

• Purpose: to fight for the interest of the Indians in Malaya – politically, socially, economically.

• UMNO succeeded in forming a coalition with MCA – Perikatan or the Alliance party.

• This cooperation was further strengthened by MIC joining the party in 1954.

• The Alliance, led by Tunku Abdul Rahman, scored major victory in the 1st General Elections (July 1955); consolidated its position to struggle for self-rule in Malaya.

Political parties..

• The victory of UMNO-MCA-MIC was said to suggest that the people were beginning to accept the trend of non-ethnic politics (?)

• The big victory opened the way for the Alliance to gain Merdeka (Independence) from Britain.

• Federation of Malaya achieved Merdeka on 31 August 1957.

Nationalism & Politics before 1959 (Sarawak)

• The consciousness among the Sarawakians began to surface in the 1030s.

• The movement (nationalism) among the Malays started in the 1930s, led by Rakawi Yusof.

• He published the newspaper Fajar Sarawak (in Jawi), 1930.

• 4 June 1959 it was agreed to set up a political party known as Sarawak United People’s Party (SUPP).

• SUPP was the pioneer in party politics in Sarawak.

Sarawak..

• The Malays set up Parti Negara Sarawak (PANAS) and Barisan Rakyat Jati Sarawak (BARJASA); the Dayaks also set up Sarawak National Party (SNAP) and Parti Pesaka Anak Sarawak (PESAKA).

• PANAS was officially formed in April 1960.• SNAP -- the third party in Sarawak and also the

first party of the Dayak community.

Sarawak..

• 5 parties -- pro-Malaysia groups -- PANAS, BARJASA, SNAP, PESAKA and SCA got together to form a coalition called Barisan Bersatu Sarawak (Sarawak United Front, SUF) on 22 October 1962

• SUF was later changed to Parti Perikatan Sarawak (Sarawak Alliance Party, SAP).

Sarawak..

• SAP – an important development in Sarawak politics.

• SAP was needed in a multi-ethnic Sarawak in order to achieve harmony & inter-ethnic understanding

Political development in Sabah

• Party politics started relatively late in Sabah, beginning 1961, after the announcement of Malaysia was made by Tunku Abdul Rahman.

Political consciousness before 1961

• The first party was the United National Kadazan Organization (UNKO).

• UNKO was formed in August 1961, and chaired by Donald Stephens.

• United Sabah National Organisation, USNO started on 23 December 1961, i.e. 4 months after UNKO.

• It was led by Datu Mustapha Harun (Chairperson), Mohd Said bin Keruak, Mohd Yassin bin Hj. Hashim, Sakaran Dandai and the chiefs of suku Suluk, Bajau & Melayu-Brunei.

Sabah..

• The Murut people did not want to be left behind by the development taking place at the time...

• Following this, G. S. Sundang left UNKO and set up United National Pasok Momogun Organization (Pasok Momogun) on 4 January 1962 together with Orang Kaya-Kaya Sedomon.

Sabah..

• The Chinese formed their pol. party in 1962.• North Borneo Democratic Party (NBDP)

started in Kota Kinabalu and led by Peter Chin, while the United Party (UP) in Sandakan was led by Khoo Siak Chiew.

• The Indian community formed the North Borneo Indian Congress (NBIC) on 14 October 1962.

Sabah..

• In October 1961, the British announced that the first elections for Sabah would be held shortly to prepare Sabahans for self-rule.

• The political parties in Sabah agreed to merge into a coalition – UNKO & USNO then united to form Parti Perikatan Sabah (Sabah Alliance Party) in August 1962.

COOPERATION AFTER THE FORMATION OF MALAYSIA

• Parti Perikatan -> Barisan Nasional (National Front) 1972 (with new members: Islamic Party Malaysia, PAS ; People’s Movement Party, Gerakan; and SUPP)

• Since Merdeka in 1957, the political process & setting up of pol. parties had most been along ethnic lines.

ETHNIC RELATIONS – THE FORMAL EFFORTS

• After Malaya’s independence in 1957, there was a consensus among the people (Malay & non-Malays) on a number of important national issues.

• This was considered by some sectors as a “social contract”. The situation became more complex after 1963 with the joining in of Sabah, Sarawak & Singapore.

• With the formation of Malaysia more important elements were included in the new Malaysian Federal Constitution.

MALAYAN CONSTITUTION 1948

• Centralised legislative power, but administrative power was given to the state governments.

• Contained specific provisions to protect the power of the Malay sultans & the interest of the Malays.

• First elections (1955) held to elect members of the Majlis Perundangan Persekutuan Malaya (Malayan Legislative Council, Federation of Malaya).

• In 1956 a conference was held in London between the leaders of Parti Perikatan (the Alliance Party) and the British government.

• The meeting decided that Federation of Malaya would be an independent nation on 31 August 1957.

• A commission led by Lord Reid was set up in March 1956 to draft the constitution.

Malayan constitution• The main task of the Reid Commission:

– To draft a federal constitution that would create a strong and well-functioning central government.

• The Reid Commission received 131 memoranda from various sectors, including from the Alliance Party & Malay rulers.

• The Alliance’s memorandum was considered a sort of “Pakatan Murni” among the three components of the party (1956-1957).

• The 2 important items In the memo were: 1. to retain the 4 traditional elements of the country: a) the Malay language, b) Islam, c) the royal institution, d) the special position of the Malays,2. to accept citizenship (of the non-Malays) based on the principle of jus soli.

“PAKATAN MURNI”, 1957

• The idea of Malayan Union was replaced by Persekutuan Tanah Melayu (Federation of Malaya), agreed between the British & the Malay rulers (1948).

• Among the matters agreed upon in the Pakatan Murni” (some called it “Social Contract”) were: – The position of the Malay rulers – The special position of the Malays– Citizenship of non-Malays based on jus soli (for those born after the

Federation)– Islam as the religion of the federation; other religions could continue

to be practiced without any hindrance – Malay language as the official language, but other languages could still

be used.

MALAYSIA AGREEMENT, 1963• Did not change the “pakatan murni” items.• Agreed upon by the leaders of Federation of Malaya and their

counterparts from Sabah, Sarawak & Singapore. • The Federation of Malaya Constitution contained the demands from

Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore when they agreed to form Malaysia.• The 20-point demands by Sabah was a document which constituted a

condition (syarat) for Sabah to join Malaysia.• The demands touched on :

• Religion• Language• Constitution• Immigration• Finance• Bumiputeras of Sabah.

Malaysia..

• Matters concerning Sabah & Sarawak agreed upon and written in the Federal Constitution must be referred to in order to understand the inter-ethnic political process & the relationship between the central government and the states, (especially Sabah & Sarawak). These include:

• Special protection for Sabah & Sarawak• Special provision (finance) for Sabah & Sarawak• See also Senarai (list) 2 and 3 under Jadual ke-9

(constitution).

ETHNIC RELATIONS AFTER THE FORMATION OF MALAYSIA

• Unity & Integration is a natural process – could succeed if the people understand its benefits.

• Unity & integration in politics has been successful – brought all various communities into the political process & administration.

• The success in politics cannot easily be compared with the achievements in other fields, especially social & economy.

• A process towards unity & integration requires the direct involvement & intervention of the government.

CONCLUSION

• Political stability can be seen in relation to economic development -- both need each other :

• Political instability affects economic growth & development• Economic downturns destablise politics.

• Political development in Malaya/Malaysia could be seen in the light of political consciousness and nationalist movements among various ethnics – this later developed into the formation of ethnic-based political organizations/parties, then into coalitions of pro-establishment parties to demand Independence & self-rule.

• The inter-ethnic cooperation the formation of Malaysia, 16 September 1963.

• Will the formula -- i.e. ethnic-based parties & inter-ethnic cooperation – continue to work in Malaysia??