DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE

SPANChapter 3

FROM CONCEPTION TO THE FIRST YEAR

List and discuss the stages of prenatal development

List harmful influences on prenatal development

List and discuss the motor and sensory capacitites of newborns and infants

Define terms associated with the concept of attachment, and describe the research methodology

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT http://www.babycenter.com/100_fetal-developme

nt_5214615.bc

Maturation = the sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behavior and physical characteristics

3 Stages of prenatal development Germinal Stage: 0-14 days: fertilized egg (zygote)

divides and attaches to the uterine wall; outside becomes placenta, inner part becomes embryo

Embryonic stage: after implantation (about 2 weeks) to 8th week: embryo develops, organs and limbs develop (heart and liver), testosterone is secreted in males

Fetal Stage – after 8th week, further development and brain weight marked increase in nervous system development and brain weight. 4th month = movement 5th month = can identify gender 6th month = organs more fully developed (baby could survive

outside of womb)

Harmful influences that can cross the placental barrierGerman measlesRadiationToxic chemicalsSTDsCigarette smokingHeavy alcohol consumptionPrescription and nonprescription drugs

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Premature birth

Smaller in weight, though not always in lengthLess physically & cognitively developedUsually up to 2 months early still has a fighting

chance

TeratogensNoxious substance or factors that can disrupt

prenatal developmentX-rays: disrupt development of brain cellsDrugs: abnormal physical & psychological

developmentAlcohol: FAS; mental retardation, facial

disfigurement

THE INFANT’S WORLD Physical abilities

Newborns have functional motor reflexes Newborns are able to see, but are nearsighted

Will show evidence of depth perception within a few months

Prefer faces Many aspects of development depend on cultural

customs Attachment – provides a secure base from which

children can explore The Harlows demonstrated the importance of

touching, or contact comfort http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsA5Sec6dAI Between 7 and 9 months, babies may show stranger

anxiety and separation anxiety until the middle of the second year or later

Ainsworth experiment: the Strange Situation in which the baby’s behavior is observed when the mother leaves the baby with a stranger Securely attached children are clearly more

attached to the mother Insecurely attached children show avoidance or

anxiety http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU

Factors affecting attachment Neglect, abuse, and deprivation adversely affect

attachment, however, differences in normal child-rearing practices have no effect

Daycare does not affect attachment Temperament, chronic stress, and rejection can

affect attachment Cultural expectations play a role

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Describe the stages of language development

List and explain the fundamental principles of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Describe the stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Explain the principles of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and describe the stages

Summarize the criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

LANGUAGE From cooing to communicating

In first months, babies responsive to pitch, intensity and sound of language; people talk to babies with more varied pitch and intonation

By 4-6 months, babies have learned many basic sounds of their language, and over time lose ability to perceive speech sounds in another language

Between 6-12 months, babies enter the babbling phase; infants become more familiar with the sound structure of their native language

Starting at around 11 months, babies develop repertoire of symbolic gestures; gestures spur language learning

Between 18-24 months, 2-3 word combinations are produced; first combinations have a telegraphic quality

The innate capacity for languageChomsky observed that children can

figure out a sentences deep structure from the surface structure, therefore the brain must contain a language acquisition device that enables children to develop language if they are exposed to it Children everywhere go through similar

stages of linguistic development Children combine words in ways that adults

never would, so they could not simply be imitating adults

Adults do not consistently correct their children’s syntax

Language development depends on both biological readiness and social experience; there is a critical period for language development

THINKING Piaget proposed that children must

make two types of mental adaptationsAssimilation – fitting new information into

present system of knowledge, beliefs, and schemas (categories of things and people)

Accommodation – must change or modify existing schemas to accommodate new information that doesn’t fit

Piaget’s cognitive stagesSensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old)

Infants learn through concrete actions; “thinking” consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movements

Begin to understand object permanence at around six months; involves understanding that something continues to exist even if you can’t see it or touch it

Object permanence represents the beginning of representational thought-ability to use mental imagery and other symbolic

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjBh9ld_yIo

Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7) Accelerated use of symbols and language in play and in imitation

of adult behavior Limitations

Cannot reason or use abstract principles (called operations) Piaget believed thinking was egocentric – that preoperational

children are unable to take the point of view of another http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=OinqFgs

Ibh0&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

Cannot grasp conservation – notion that physical properties do not change when forms or appearances change

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 11)

Accomplishments – understand conservation, reversibility, cause and effect, identity, mathematical operations, serial ordering

Thinking is still concrete, not abstract – grounded in concrete experiences

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M Formal Operations Stage (ages 12 to adulthood)

Beginning of abstract reasoning Can reason systematically, think about the future, think about

situations they have not experienced firsthand http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjJdcXA1KH8

Evaluating Piaget Shifts from stage to stage not as sweeping or clear-cut

as Piaget implied Children understand more than Piaget gave them

credit for Infants as young as 4 months show understanding of some

physics principles Children advance more rapidly in their symbolic activities

Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget though Children’s cognitive development depends on

education and culture Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills of many

adults Some people never develop the capacity for formal

operations Other people continue to think concretely unless a specific

problem requires abstract though Most psychologists accept Piaget’s major point, that

new reasoning abilities depend on the emergence of previous ones

Most people agree that children actively interpret their worlds

HOW MUCH DO PARENTS MATTER?

List the various parental styles

of child-rearing and discuss the

effects of each

PARENTAL METHODS OF ENFORCING STANDARDS EFFECT CHILDREN Power Assertion

Involves threats, physical punishment, denial of privileges

Associated with a lack of moral feelings and behavior, and with negative outcomes for children

Leads to aggressiveness and poor impulse control in children

These parents do not: state clear rules, require compliance, consistently punish violations, or praise good behavior

Induction More successful at teaching moral feelings and behavior The parent appeals to the child’s own resources,

affection for others, and sense of responsibility Tends to produce children who behave morally on many

different measures and who have high self-esteem Used by authoritative parents who give emotional

support and encourage two-way communication

LIMITS ON PARENTAL INFLUENCE Most parents are inconsistent depending on

mood, stress, etc. Some children turn out different DESPITE

parenting. WHY? The child’s temperament affects parenting style

Authoritarian with impulsive Permissive with easy going, punitive with defiant Children respond differently to discipline

Peers affect the child enormously How successful are your peers? Does that influence your

success? Are they hard-workers? What is “nerdy”?

So do parents matter?? They affect a child’s behavior and social

development Self-esteem

MORAL REASONING Piaget pioneered the study of moral reasoning in

children Lawrence Kohlberg took it a step further Kohlberg developed a theory that states that

there are three levels of moral reasoning that are universal and occur in invariant order – moral stages determined by answers people give to hypothetical moral dilemmas Levels and stages

Level 1 – preconventional morality Stage 1 – fear and punishment for disobedience Stage 2 – in their best interest to obey

Level 2 – conventional morality, typically reached around 10 or 11 years of age Stage 3 – based on conformity and loyalty Stage 4 – a “law-and-justice” orientation

Level 3 – postconventional (“principled”) moralityStage 5 – values and laws are relative and change:

recognition that people hold differing standardsStage 6 – standard based on universal human

rights Limitations

Stage theories tend to overlook cultural and educational influences on reasoning

People’s moral reasoning is often inconsistent across situations

Moral reasoning and behavior are often unrelated

Gilligan said that males base moral reasoning on justice and females base moral reasoning on care Most research finds no gender difference in

moral reasoning Both genders use justice and compassion in

moral reasoning

GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Distinguish between gender socialization and gender identity

List and discuss the explanations that have been given for sex-typing

TERMINOLOGY Sex – a biological distinction determined

by anatomical and physiological attributes Gender – cultural and psychological

attributes that children learn are appropriate for the sexes

Gender identity – fundamental sense of maleness or femaleness regardless of what one wears or does Develops at age 4 or 5

Gender typing – society’s expectations governing male and female attitudes and behavior

INFLUENCES ON GENDERDEVELOPMENT

Biological factors – toy and play preferences may have a biological basis

Cognitive factors Children develop gender schemas (mental network of beliefs

and expectations about what it means to be male or female) as they mature; these schemas influence their behavior

At 9 months most babies can discriminate male and female faces

Once children can label themselves as boys or girls, they begin to prefer same-sex playmates and sex-typed toys

Boys express stronger preferences for masculine toys and activities than girls do for feminine ones; differences appear to be related to gender differences in status

As abilities mature, children understand exceptions to gender schemas

Gender schemas change throughout our lives, but continue to influence us

Gender and LearningDifferences between boys and girls are also

the result of gender socializationAssertiveness is rewarded more in boys;

verbal behavior is rewarded more in girlsChildren learn to adjust their behavior,

making it more gender-typedParents’ stereotypical expectations

influence children’s performance and feeling of competence in math, English, and sports

Gender over the life span – gender development has become a lifelong process

ADOLESCENCEDescribe the events that signal the

onset of puberty in males and females, and the relationship

between age of onset and later adjustment

Summarize the evidence on the relationship between adolescence

and emotional turmoil

DEFINITION Adolescence

Period of development between puberty (the age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction) and adulthood

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Puberty and the onset of reproductive capacity Males – more androgens

Females – more estrogens Males – sperm from testes

Females – eggs from ovariesMenarche – menstruation and breasts develop in

femalesMales – nocturnal emissions, growth of testes, scrotum and penis

Hormones are responsible for secondary sex characteristics in both sexes

Growth spurt occurs in both sexes; earlier for girls Timing of puberty significant; early and late

maturers may have special problems

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE Studies find that extreme turmoil and unhappiness are the

exception (common, but not typical to be unhappy) One’s peer group is particularly influential during

adolescence Teens are trying to develop own standards and values. Often look

to peers rather than parents Rejection by peers more upsetting than parents

Common problems: conflict with parents, mood swings and depression, higher rates of risky behavior

During adolescence externalizing problems become more common in boys, internalizing problems become more common in girls; suicide rates increasing in boys

Preteens who encounter problems are often reacting to specific changes in the environment; conflicts often stem from their need to individuate

The extent to which parent and teens quarrel depends on cultural norms

ADULTHOOD

Describe the stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

Explain how the “social clock” influences reactions to life

transitions

Describe the impact of menopause and midlife on the physical and psychological well-being of men

and women

Describe the changes in mental functioning associated with aging

STAGES AND AGES Erikson’s psychosocial theory says that

all people go through eight stages in their lives, resolving an inevitable “crisis” at each oneTrust vs mistrust (during 1st year)Autonomy vs shame and doubt

(toddlerhood) Initiative vs guilt (preschool)Competence vs inferiority (elementary

school) Identity vs role confusion (adolescence) Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)Generativity vs stagnation (middle

adulthood)Ego integrity vs despair (old age)

How easily one passes between stages depends on cultural and economic factors

Erikson showed that development is an ongoing process that is never finished

Erikson’s stages are not universal; do not occur in the same order for everyone

THE TRANSITIONS OF LIFE Today’s theories of adult development

emphasize the transitions that mark adult life, rather than a rigid developmental sequence

Starting out: The Social Clock Most people still unconsciously evaluate their

transitions according to a social clock Adjusting to anticipated transitions is easier

than adjusting to unanticipated transitions is “non-event transitions”

People who wish to do things “on time” and are not able to do so may feel depressed and anxious. The biological clock

The middle yearsThe years between 35 and 65 are considered

the prime of life for most AmericansMenopause – midlife cessation of

menstruation; ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone

Only about 10% o all women have severe physical symptoms

Most postmenopausal women view menopause positively

Menopause itself has no effect on most women’s mental and physical health

Men lack biological equivalent of menopauseFor both sexes, physical changes of midlife and

the biological fact of aging do not predict how people will feel about aging or how they will respond to it

Old age The definition of “old” has gotten older Various aspects of mental functioning decline with

age In aging, fluid intelligence tends to decline, but

crystallized intelligence remains stable or improves – may compensate for the brain’s declining efficiency late in life

Many problems in old age and not inevitable and are correctable

Short-term training programs can boost memory and other cognitive skills dramatically

People who have complex or challenging occupations and interests and who are flexible are most likely to maintain their cognitive abilities in later life

Many people get happier and calm with age In extreme old age rates of cognitive impairment and

dementias rise dramatically

ARE ADULTS PRISONERS OF

CHILDHOOD?Explain the concept of resilience as it applies to recovery from trauma

Traumatized children are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems

Evidence from the following suggest that negative effects are not inevitableRecovery from warRecovery from abusive or alcoholic parentsRecovery from sexual abuse

Resilience can come from one’s personality, other supportive people, and meaningful activities