chapter 22&23

Chapter 22 Review

Key Terms

1. Industrial Revolution: A revolution involving dramatic innovations in manufacturing, mining, transportation, and communications and equally rapid changes in society and commerce

2. Agricultural revolution: A revolution involving dramatic innovations in growing food, distributing it, and creating a food supply and with this comes a population growth.

3. mass production: The making of many identical items by breaking the process into simple repetitive tasks.

4. Josiah Wedgwood: Inventor of pyrometer and became a member of the Royal Society

5. division of labor: Splitting of a job into small tasks to make a complete item.

6. Mechanization: The use of machines to do work previously done by hand7. Richard Arkwright: Inventor of the water frame8. Crystal Palace: A huge greenhouse made entirely of iron and glass and

large enough to enclose the tallest trees.9. steam engine: A substitute for human and animal power as well as for

wind and water power to transform fossil fuel into mechanical energy10. James Watt: Innovator of the steam engine; able to make the steam

engine more efficient by using a condenser to keep the cylinder hot and the condenser always cold.

11. electric telegraph: Telegraph that uses electric signals12. business cycle: Recurrent swings from economic hard times to recovery

and growth, then back to hard times.13. laissez faire: Expression meaning “let them do”; best exemplified by

Adam Smith’s advocating for free market capitalism.14. Mercantilism: Arguing that governments should regulate trade in order

to maximize their horde of precious metals15. Positivism: Philosophy that argues that the scientific method could solve

social as well as technical problems.16. utopian socialism: socialism achieved by voluntary sacrifice17. Why did the Industrial Revolution take place first in Britain rather than in

another country? Although the British were innovative, they were no more innovative than some other nations; however, they made practical applications of those innovations much more quickly. Furthermore, they were the world's leading exporters of tools, guns, hardware, and other craft goods. British engineers tried new approaches to problems. Britain also had many skilled refugees, who brought important skills with them. In addition, British society was a factor in promoting the Industrial Revolution. The British monarchy was less powerful, and oppressive than those in other countries, and political power was less centralized. Because class lines were less sharply drawn, moving up through the classes was more feasible in England. British superiority in shipping and water transportation played a crucial part in the era before railroads, when land transportation was prohibitively expensive. Finally, British financial institutions were most aptly suited to the Industrial Revolution.

Examples can be seen in the writings of Adam Smith, as well as in joint-stock companies and the insurance system.

18. Explain the effects of the agricultural revolution and the Industrial Revolution.

19. What five revolutionary innovations made possible the Industrial Revolution? Give one example of each of these innovations, and describe how each was adapted.

20. How do you account for the spread of industrialization outside of England in the nineteenth century? Students should note the beginnings of industrialization in Europe after the Napoleonic wars ended in 1815. Generally speaking, the nations closest to England industrialized most quickly. Belgium and France stole industrial secrets and smuggled skilled workers and machinery out of Britain. Nations farthest from England, such as Russia and Sweden, industrialized much more slowly. Many countries also waited until the British had solved the problems they had encountered. Nations eliminated internal tariffs and joint-stock companies and banks secured the capital necessary for industrial expansion. In the United States, a high standard of living and a growing urban population created a demand for manufactured goods. High tariffs helped ensure that they would be produced in the United States, where large distances encouraged the development of the railroad, telegraph, and steamboat. American cotton growing spurred the development of the cloth and clothing industry.

21. What was the environmental effect of the Industrial Revolution? Students can choose from an extensive list of environmental effects. Deforestation for construction and fuel was readily apparent in Europe, but much less so in America. Europeans then adopted coal, and almost immediately suffered from breathing the harmful coal emissions. As cities grew larger and population density increased, public water and sanitation became problems. On the other hand, industrialization had some positive environmental effects. In Britain, underground resources such as coal replaced wood, and overseas cotton replaced domestic wool. As land diminished and feed for horses became expensive, less land-hungry mechanical transport spread. Shipbuilding, which had traditionally consumed enormous quantities of wood, switched to iron.

22. Describe the working conditions encountered by women and men during the Industrial Revolution. Students should recognize both positive and negative effects for industrial workers. On the positive side, many new opportunities opened up for those with particular skills, such as machinists and metal workers. Wages for these specialties and others also increased. For other workers, the Industrial Revolution seemed like a nightmare. Most work was boring. Repetitive motions mandated by the mass-production system made workers feel disassociated from their work. Employers added new machines and ran them faster and longer. Health conditions deteriorated, causing infant mortality rates to soar and average life expectancies plummet. Many factories sought women and children as laborers. National and international mass migrations of workers began, as workers moved from rural areas to industrializing

cities. Industrial accidents were commonplace, and workers were allowed little say in controlling their workplace. The workday routinely lasted fourteen to sixteen hours.

23. Why was transportation such a critical feature of the Industrial Revolution? Transportation opened up greater markets and then the industrialists could enjoy economy of scale. Economy of scale is the ability to mass-produce which lowers the cost per item produced. If your factory is in Pittsburgh and you have a market for your product in California, you're able to use the train to get your product to the market. Or put another way, your supply is able to get to the area where there is a demand for it.

24. How were colonialism and European imperialism related to industrialization? Colonialism and imperialism in Europe gave European countries access to workforces and more resources, allowing industrial gains.

25. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the population grew because of reliable food supplies and widespread resistance to disease

26. Enclosure was the takeover of land from poor farmers by rich farmers27. What new crop contributed to the agricultural revolution? The potato28. The agricultural revolution was a change in farming methods and crops

that resulted in rich farmers “enclosing” their lands and poor farmers becoming landless.

29. In rural areas manufacture was carried out through cottage industries, where merchants delivered raw materials to craftspeople and picked up the finished product.

30. Which of the following is not one of the factors that gave Britain a “head start” on the Industrial Revolution? It was highly commercial, and many people were involved in production and trade.

31. Britain's manufacturing depended on the importation of raw goods from its colonies (as well as enforced trade). Which of the following was not an area of colonization for Britain?

32. New forms of energy were important for industrialization, such as the steam engine and electricity.

33. Why was industrialization of continental Europe more difficult than in Britain? Britain recovered from the plague faster

34. “Division of labor” in manufacturing means dividing work into specialized and repetitive tasks.

35. England began importing raw cotton the English Parliament banned importation of cotton cloth

36. Among the new inventions developed to weave cotton textiles was (were) the spinning jenny and the water frame.

37. According to the chapter, what was not one of the five major contributors to industrialization?

38. Iron production was transformed by Abraham Darby's discovery that coke could be used in the place of charcoal in the smelting process.

39. A significant contribution to the mass manufacture of cheap metal items was the development of puddling.

40. The most revolutionary invention of the Industrial Revolution was James Watt's steam engine

41. The United States was the first country to create commercially viable steamships. This was because they put steam engine on boats.

42. In continental Europe, industries such as iron, construction, and machinery were greatly stimulated by first building a railroad network

43. What invention revolutionized communication during the Industrial Revolution? The electric telegraph

44. One profound effect that industrialization had on the world was that Europe and North America were empowered at the expense of the rest of the world.

45. Urbanization had the greatest impact on the Industrial Revolution46. Which of the following was not true of poor urban neighborhoods? The

houses were often mixed in with factories47. The most obvious change in rural life during the Industrial Revolution

was the appearance of new roads, canals, and railroads.48. Factory work represented a radical difference from traditional rural work

because All of these 49. Industrial work had an enormous effect on the family because work was

now removed from the home and family members were separated all day.

50. Women typically earned one third to one half as much as men.51. Single women and married women both did factory work but for

different reasons: married women worked if their husbands were unable to support their families.

52. When child labor laws began to pass in England, mill owners increasingly recruited adult immigrants from Ireland

53. In the United States, many factory owners opened their factories with a commitment to decent wages and housing but eventually lowered wages and imposed longer hours

54. The cotton boom enriched planters as well as manufacturers and created a high demand for slaves

55. “Business cycles” meant that the economy swings from hard times to recovery and growth, then back to hard times

56. The early Industrial Revolution’s real beneficiaries were the landowning gentry

57. With industrialization, the role of middle-class women became management of the home, children, and servants. This was known as the “cult of domesticity”

58. In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith proposes that the government should The government should not interfere in business.

59. Thomas Malthus's explanation of workers' misfortunes was that population was outgrowing the food supply

60. Friedrich List, the German economist, argued that the German states had to eliminate tariff barriers between them but erect high barriers against imports from Britain.

61. To address the misery of the poor, French socialists proposed that workers form communities under the protection of business leaders;

their views were known as positivism62. Charles Fourier and other opponents of capitalism advocated utopian

socialism63. Which of the following was not one of the ways in which workers

resisted harsh treatment? Signing petitions and presenting them to the town government

64. The Factory Act of 1833 Outlawed the employment of children under 9 in the textile industry

65. As a result of industrialization, the relationship between western Europe and the non-Western world was dominated by Western Europe

66. How did industrialization change China's relationship with the West? Great Britain used steam powered gunboats to humiliate China’s military in the Opium Wars.

67. Why did Britain discourage the efforts of Egypt to industrialize? They did not want a powerful country threatening the flow of travelers

68. Britain's main strategy to eliminate competition in trade was to force Muhammad Ali to eliminate all import duties in the name of free trade

Chapter 23 Review

Key Terms

1. Simón Bolívar: 1783-1830, Venezuelan statesman: leader of revolt of South American colonies against Spanish rule. Founded Bolivia. Agreed to emancipation in order to draw slaves and freemen to his cause and to gain supplies from Haiti.

2. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla: Parish priest who spoke fiercely and urged citizens to rebel against Spanish officials

3. José María Morelos: Priest who was a student of Hidalgo’s who led the revolution started by his instructor. Convened Congress to draft a constitution

4. Confederation of 1867: Created a new Dominion of Canada and a central government in Ottawa

5. Personalist leaders: Relied on their ability to mobilize and direct the masses of these new nations rather than on the authority of constitutions and laws.

6. Andrew Jackson: First U.S. president born in humble circumstances. A self-made man who eventually acquired substantial property and owned over a hundred slaves, Jackson was extremely popular among frontier residents, urban workers, and small farmers.

7. José Antonio Páez: Organized and led Bolívar’s most successful cavalry force.

8. Benito Juárez: President of Mexico who was forced to flee to Mexico City after France invaded Mexico in 1862

9. Tecumseh: Brothers who created a larger and better-organized alliance among Amerindian peoples in the Ohio River Valley and gained some support from Great Britain.

10. Caste War: Popular and organized rebellion of the Maya in 1847 that almost returned the Yucután to Maya rule

11. Abolitionists: Men and women who wanted to outlaw slavery12. Acculturation: The modification of the language, customs, values, and

behaviors of a group as a result of contact with people from another culture

13. Women's Rights Convention: A meeting called by women to discuss women’s rights

14. Development: Industrialization and Prosperity15. Underdevelopment: Continued colonial dependence on exporting raw

materials and on low-wage industries16. To what extent did the independence movements in Latin America draw

inspiration from, and ultimately come to resemble, the American and French Revolutions? What, on the other hand, were the factors that were unique to these colonies and that ensured that their revolutions followed their own distinct trajectories?

17. Compare and contrast the revolutionary movements in Venezuela, Mexico, and Brazil. Venezuelan independence was initiated by Creoles (colonial-born whites), who were large landowners seeking to hold on to their power and wealth. They wanted to retain slavery and keep power from the black and mixed-race populace. Their narrow aims angered

most Venezuelans, who broadened the movement, unifying behind Simon Bolivar. Although defeated on many occasions. Bolivar successfully adapted his objectives and policies to attract new allies and build coalitions. Although initially opposed to the abolition of slavery, he agreed to support emancipation in order to draw slaves and freemen to his cause and to gain supplies from Haiti. Bolivar made astute adjustments in his goals both politically and militarily and won independence. Mexico was much more conservative and wealthier than other Spanish colonies, with a higher percentage of Spanish-born settlers as well. On hearing of Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the wealthiest Spaniards in Mexico feared that the local viceroy would be too sympathetic to the Creoles, and sc they overthrew him. Establishing a precedent of undermining the colonial government, the revolution spread to the rural and urban poor. It was the news of a military revolt in Spain in 1820 that shattered the conservative coalition. In 1821, Colonel Agustin de Iturbide and other loyalist commanders forged an alliance and declared Mexico's independence. However this transition to independence was conservative and highlighted by the decision to create a monarchial form of government and crown Iturbide emperor. In 1823, Mexico became a republic. The situation in Brazil was different mainly because of its Portuguese affiliation. When Napoleon invaded Portugal, the Portuguese royal family fled into exile in Brazil. Even after the French in Portugal were defeated, the royal family remained in America. The king returned to Portugal only when a liberal revolt threatened the Iberian government. His son Pedro declared Brazilian independence in 1822 and established a constitutional monarchy with himself as its head.

18. Problems associated with regionalism were important in shaping Latin American nations as well as the United States. Compare and contrast the significance of regionalism throughout the Americas. Regionalism in Latin America was very divisive, often splitting nations into competing factions. On a larger scale, it ensured the failure of all attempts at creating federations of states. Students should identify Bolivar's failed attempt at creating Gran Colombia as one example. Within nations, the wealthy jealously guarded their positions and often instigated civil wars or secession movements to safeguard them. This caused more localized divisions, which threatened to split countries apart. Dictators often arose in attempts to unify regions under stronger centralized control. By IWG. Every Latin American country had undergone at least one dictatorship. On the other hand, the United States, with a longer British and colonial history of constitutional and representative government, never experienced a violent usurpation of power or rejection of an election. Still, the United States Constitution did specifically try to address regional problems and concerns, which included sanctioning slavery. The problems of regionalism and internal differences were significant enough that they led to the Civil War in 1861.

19. What was the effect of independence and the end of colonialism on Amerindians? Consider former British, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies. Toward the end of the colonial era, European nations strove to control the expansion of their peoples in an effort to end the perpetual fighting with Amerindians. Independence removed that check on expansion, but at the same time the revolutionary struggles for freedom weakened newly independent peoples. Amerindians took advantage of that temporary weakness to push back Euro-American advances. Amerindians continued to resist expansion, adapting in unique ways to new technologies and opportunities, such as horses and firearms. Euro-American setbacks were only temporary, however. In places such as the United States, military efforts led by the national government forcibly removed Amerindians to more remote and less viable reservations. In Argentina, powerful Amerindian groups were kept at peace only through an elaborate system of gift giving and prisoner exchanges. Ultimately, however, Amerindians lost their land. Increases in population and new technologies enabled their opponents to overwhelm them.

20. Discuss the significance of railroads in transforming the Western Hemisphere. How did railroads affect Latin America, the United States, and Canada?

21. Discuss the process of abolishing slavery in the Americas. Did the movement for abolition of slavery differ in the United States, Latin America, and the Caribbean? Students should recognize that during the movements for independence in all three places there were strong anti-slavery sentiments. The ideas of the Enlightenment that provided an ideological foundation for independence also addressed the evils of slavery as well. In regions where plantation economies were most

prevalent, abolition met with the most resistance; however, slave revolts and resistance persisted in all of these areas. Both women and African-Americans were active in the abolitionist movement in the United States. In the United States as the debate over slavery in the new territories boiled over, the Confederacy seceded from the Union. In 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which ended slavery in the Union states, and the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution ended it for good in 1865. Slavery persisted for twenty years more in Brazil, where it was finally abolished in 1888. In the Caribbean, slave revolts and resistance weakened European imperial commitment to slavery, and the decrease in sugar plantation profitability convinced the British to push for the abolition of slavery there as well. The remaining Spanish colonies, Puerto Rico and Cuba, were the last to free the slaves.

22. Define and discuss the patterns of economic development and underdevelopment in the Americas. What regions enjoyed economic development during the nineteenth century, and what were the major components of that development? What regions remained underdeveloped, and why? Students should recognize that all western hemisphere economies grew between 1800 and 1900. The growth of markets, technology, and population caused increases in wealth; however, growing economic interdependence and increased competition also caused structural problems in some cases. Two distinct tracks of development evolved: development and underdevelopment. Development included industrial development and prosperity, and underdevelopment included continued colonial dependence on exports of raw materials and low-wage industries. Students should be aware of the effects of world markets on these economies and which economies were in North America and which were in South America.

23. What was the nature of immigration to the Americas in the nineteenth century? What were some of the problems and contributions of immigration? As the African slave trade came to an end, the nature, sources, and numbers of immigrants to the Americas changed dramatically. For instance, hundreds of thousands of Indian and Chinese emigrants came to North and South America. Still, most free immigrants came from Europe, particularly those emigrating to the United States, Canada, Argentina, and other nations of southern South America. This was due in part to discrimination against Asian immigrants in the United States, Canada, and other countries. Students should identify the changing nature of the flow of Europeans as to source and numbers. While this influx of people contributed to the Industrial Revolution in the Americas, supplying the labor for new factories and agriculture, workers in the Americas viewed immigrants differently. To workers, immigrants were threat-pawns used by capitalists to lower wages and degrade working conditions. Native-born Americans blamed the immigrants' cultures for these immigration-related problems. However, aside from the previously mentioned economic benefits, immigrants made many significant contributions in food, music, literature, folklore, and other areas of their cultural heritage. Schools attempted to assimilate immigrants through acculturation. Patriotic songs, symbols, and history lessons -were used to this end.

24. What factors led to the alteration of the American environment? How was the environment altered? Population growth, economic expansion, new technologies, and the introduction of plants and animals to new regions dramatically altered the American environment. Many of Cuba's forests were cut to expand sugar production. The expansion of livestock raising put a heavy burden on the fragile environments in Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, and the southwestern United States. Commercial agriculture, such as increases in cotton production, led to soil exhaustion and erosion. The use of plows on the North American

prairies and the Argentine pampa eliminated many native grasses and increased the threat of soil erosion. Coffee planters in Brazil exhausted soil fertility with a destructive cycle of over-planting. In addition, rapid urbanization put heavy pressure on the environment. New York, Chicago, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Mexico City were among the fastest growing cities. Governments strained to keep up with the need for sewers, clean water, and garbage disposal. The rising demand for building materials led to the spread of the timber industry. Mining also advanced into Nevada, Montana, and California after 1860 and erosion and pollution resulted. Also, efforts to meet increasing domestic demand for food and housing and to satisfy foreign demands for exports led to environmental degradation but also contributed to the world economy and regional prosperity. By the end of the nineteenth century, small-scale conservation efforts were underway in many nations.

25. The military campaigns of what European leader pushed the colonies of South America toward independence? Simón Bolívar

26. The Junta Central was a political body established to rule during the French occupation of Spain

27. The overthrow of the Venezuelan, Mexican, and Bolivian colonial governments was initially led by the merchant class

28. Who objected to the Junta Central in Spanish America? Colonial residents of Spanish America

29. Simón Bolívar created Gran Colombia, which unified Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador into one nation.

30. After awaiting the return of the Spanish king, Ferdinand IV, to the throne, loyalists were disappointed when he

31. Jose de San Martin's most effective troops were former slaves32. In 1810, Spain's richest and most populous American colony was Mexico33. When Napoleon Bonaparte deposed Spain's King Ferdinand IV, the

colonial administrator in Mexico was overthrown because he was too sympathetic for the creoles

34. The Mexican revolutionaries José María Morelos and Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla were priests

35. Morales, Hidalgo, and Iturbide were all radicals in the independence movements. All of them were leaders of the revolution

36. Emperor Pedro I of Brazil published an article in which he called slavery a “cancer eating away at Brazil.”

37. Independence in Brazil first occurred when republics overthrew Pedro II in 1889

38. Personalist leaders relied on their ability to mobilize and direct the masses of these new nations rather than on the authority of constitutions and laws.

39. In Latin America, leaders who were called caudillos held political power without constitutional sanction

40. Which of the following was not among the similarities shared by Venezuelan leader José Antonio Páez and American Andrew Jackson? They both rejected slavery as a socio-economic system.

41. The Confederation of 1867 created the new Dominion of Canada with a central government in Ottawa

42. The unity of the United States was threatened by rivalries over issues such as slavery

43. Which of the following was not a reason for the Civil War in the United States in 1861-1865?

44. In the nineteenth century, Mexico lost all but which of the following?45. To settle Texas in northeastern Mexico, the Mexican government invited

Americans to come live there46. A French army was driven out of Mexico by Benito Juarez47. With the end of colonialism in the Americas, Amerindians lost the

protection of the colonial powers48. The Shawnee leader who created a large organized alliance of

Amerindians of the Ohio River Valley and Great Britain was Tecumsah.

49. The Trail of Tears was the forced resettlement of the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, and other eastern peoples to land west of the Mississippi River.

50. The Plains Indians successfully resisted U.S. expansion in part because they had become skilled users of horses and firearms

51. Systematic resistance by Native Americans to U.S. government relocation is symbolized most by which event? The Battle of Little Bighorn

52. One advantage that Amerindians in Argentina and Chile had in checking settlers' southern expansion was an unlimited food supply from herds of wild cattle

53. The Mapuche tribes were ultimately defeated in their attempt to resist the Chilean military campaigns because of modern weaponry.

54. People who wanted slavery to be outlawed were called abolitionists55. An argument to end slavery was that it was offered both morality and

the universal rights asserted in the Declaration of Independence56. Despite emancipation of slaves in the United States, African Americans

lived under harsh conditions, including “Jim Crow” laws that segregated public transportation, jobs, and schools.

57. The Paraguayan War helped to end slavery in Brazil because large numbers of slaves joined the Brazilian Army in exchange for freedom

58. Caribbean settlers were not enthusiastic about independence from European imperial governments because they feared new slave rebellions

59. After the profitability of sugar plantations declined, the British ended its participation in the slave trade

60. Slavery lasted longest on the Caribbean islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico61. France's support for slavery decreased after the Haitian Revolution62. Most of the immigrants from Asia after 1850 went to the Western

Hemisphere63. Canada decided to reduce Asian immigration in the 1880s by imposing a

head tax on Chinese immigrants64. U.S. efforts to assimilate immigrants included teaching patriotism and

nationalism in school65. The modification of the language, customs, values, and behaviors of a

group as a result of contact with people from another culture is called acculturation

66. The Women's Rights Convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York67. Working-class women transformed gender relations by working outside

the home.68. Because Canada did not allow women to enter medical school before

1895, that country’s first women doctors received their degrees in the United States

69. The Industrial Revolution created new demand for metals such as copper, zinc, and tin. This led to a mining boom in the United States, Chile, and Mexico

70. Which of the following technological improvements did not change the Argentine cattle industry at the end of the nineteenth century? Antibiotics

71. The economic success of the United States in the nineteenth century was exemplified by the United States’ railroad network.

72. Much of Cuba's dense forest was cut for expanding sugar production73. A naturalist who worked for environmental preservation was John Muir74. When confronted with the choice of economic growth or environmental

protection, all nations chose economic growth

chapter 22&23

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