chapter 2 earth’s structure - … 2 earth’s structure leveled assessment chapter review chapter...

Chapter 2Earth’s Structure

LEVELED ASSESSMENT Chapter Review

Chapter Tests

Test A (Below Level) BL

Test B (On Level) OL

Test C (Advanced Learner) AL

LABS For leveled labs, use the

CD-ROM.

Lab worksheets from Student Edition Labs

MiniLab

Lab: Version A (Below Level) BL

Lab: Version B (On Level) OL

(Advanced Learner) AL

UNIVERSAL ACCESS/LEVELED RESOURCES Target Your Reading

Chapter Content Mastery English (Below Level) BL

Chapter Content Mastery Spanish (Below Level) BL

Reinforcement (On Level) OL

Enrichment (Advanced Learner) AL

READING SUPPORT Content Vocabulary

Chapter Outline

TEACHER SUPPORT AND PLANNING Chapter Outline for Teaching

Teacher Guide and Answers

Includes:

CHAPTER RESOURCES

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Glencoe Science

Photo CreditsCover: Alamy Images

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Permission is granted to reproduce the material contained herein on the condition that such material be reproduced only for classroom use; be provided to students, teachers, and families without charge; and be used solely in conjunction with the Glencoe Science program. Any other reproduction, for use or sale, is prohibited without prior written permission of the publisher.

Send all inquiries to:Glencoe/McGraw-Hill8787 Orion PlaceColumbus, OH 43240-4027

ISBN-13: 978-0-07-875431-9ISBN-10: 0-07-875431-3

Printed in the United States of America.

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Contents iii

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Table of Contents

Additional Assessment Resources available with Glencoe Science:

• ExamView® Assessment Suite• Assessment Transparencies• Performance Assessment in the Science Classroom• Standardized Test Practice Booklet• MindJogger Videoquizzes• Vocabulary PuzzleMaker at science.glencoe.com• Interactive Classroom• The Glencoe Science Web site at science.glencoe.com• An interactive version of this textbook along with assessment resources are

available online at mhln.com.

To the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

Reproducible Student PagesHands-On ActivitiesMiniLab: How can you describe what you cannot see? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Lab Version A: Earth’s Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Lab Version B: Earth’s Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Meeting Individual NeedsBelow, On, Advanced

Target Your Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Chapter Content Mastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Spanish Chapter Content Mastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Content Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Chapter Outline Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

AssessmentChapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Chapter Test A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Chapter Test B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Chapter Test C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Teacher Support and PlanningChapter Outline for Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T2Teacher Guide and Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T6

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Student Lab/Activity Safety Form

Earth’s Structure 1

Student Name: ________________________________

Date: ________________________________

Lab/Activity Title: ________________________________

In order to show your teacher that you understand the safety concerns of this lab/activity, the following questions must be answered after the teacher explains the information to you. You must have your teacher initial this form before you can proceed with the activity/lab.

1. How would you describe what you will be doing during this lab/activity?

2. What are the safety concerns associated with this lab/activity (as explained by your teacher)?

•

•

•

•

•

3. What additional safety concerns or questions do you have?

Teacher Approval Initials

Date of Approval

Adapted from Gerlovich, et al. (2004). The Total Science Safety System CD, JaKel, Inc. Used with Permission.

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Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________


MiniLabWhat can you infer about materials that you indirectly sense but cannot see?

Procedure 1. Work with a partner to make a sample of

a core from Earth’s crust. Put layers in a plastic jar using gravel, sand, small stones, soil, and possibly a larger stone or some plant material.

2. Diagram the arrangement in the Data and Observations section. Measure and label the depth of each layer in centimeters, and record it on your diagram.

3. Cover your jar with dark paper, and then share your jar with another team. Have them use their pencils to determine what is in your jar, how many layers you have, and if you have any “boulders” or solid rock beds included in your sample.

Data and Observations

Analysis 1. Explain the methods you used to determine the makeup of the other team’s jar.

2. Describe the evidence you used to infer what was probably in each layer in their jar.

3. Evaluate your results. How close did you come to describing the actual contents of the other team’s jar?

CHAPTER 2How can you describe what you cannot see?

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Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________

4 Earth’s Structure

LabProblem The inner layers of Earth are too deep, too dense, and too hot for humans to explore. But, scientists can study paths and characteristics of seismic waves and experiment with surface minerals and rocks to gain information about the layers that make up Earth. Use your knowledge about studies of Earth’s interior to model the structure of Earth’s layers.

Form a Hypothesis Based on information in this chapter, make a statement estimating what percentage of Earth’s volume is composed of crust, mantle, and core.

Materialsassorted colors of claysticky notesplastic knifetoothpicks

metric rulercalculatorpencilresource books

Earth’s LayersCHAPTER 2

VERSION A

Safety Precautions

Procedure

Directions: Check the boxes below as you complete each step of the procedure.

■■ 1. Review Earth’s interior.

Hint: You can use your textbook, the internet, and encyclopedias to find information about the layers and composition of Earth.

■■ 2. Develop a plan to model Earth’s layers.■■ 3. As part of your plan, determine what

materials you might use to model Earth’s layers. ■■ Label your layers with the information

you gathered.■■ Include estimates of temperature.

■■ Include the density of each layer. ■■ Include the composition of each layer.

(What materials make up the layer?)■■ Include the physical state of each layer.

(Are the materials liquids, solids, or gases?)

■■ 4. Gather your materials, and follow your plan to make the model.

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Lab: Version A CONTINUED

Analyze and Conclude 1. Label your layers accurately. How many main layers are present in your model?

2. Measure the thicknesses of each layer, including subdivisions of main layers. Record the thicknesses in a data table like the one shown on the next page.

3. Examine your model for how well it represents materials that make up Earth’s layers. Summarize your observations in the data table.

4. Evaluate your work for scale and materials used.

5. Decide whether or not your hypothesis was supported by the research you did. Explain your reasoning.

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Lab: Version A CONTINUED

Layer Actual Earth Thickness

Model Thickness

Earth Material

Model Material

Upper mantle (part of the lithosphere)

100 km peridotite

CommunicateIn the 1860s Jules Verne wrote a fictional story about a Journey to the Center of the Earth. Scientists of his time didn’t know as much as we do about Earth’s interior. Write a one-page story about an imaginary journey to Earth’s center using what you have learned in this chapter.

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Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________


LabProblem The inner layers of Earth are too deep, too dense, and too hot for humans to explore. But, scientists can study paths and characteristics of seismic waves and experiment with surface minerals and rocks to gain information about the layers that make up Earth. Use your knowledge about studies of Earth’s interior to model the structure of Earth’s layers.

Form a Hypothesis Based on information in this chapter, make a statement estimating what percentage of Earth’s volume is composed of crust, mantle, and core.

Materials

Earth’s LayersCHAPTER 2

VERSION B

assorted colors of claysticky notesplastic knifetoothpicks

metric rulercalculatorpencilresource books

Safety Precautions

Procedure

Directions: Check the boxes below as you complete each step of the procedure.

■■ 1. Review Earth’s interior.■■ 2. Develop a plan to model Earth’s layers.■■ 3. As part of your plan, determine what

materials you might use to model Earth’s layers. ■■ Label your layers with the information

you gathered.■■ Include estimates of temperature.

■■ Include the density of each layer. ■■ Include the composition of each layer.

(What materials make up the layer?)■■ Include the physical state of each layer.

(Are the materials liquids, solids,or gases?)

■■ 4. Gather your materials, and follow your plan to make the model.

Analyze and Conclude 1. Label your layers accurately. How many main layers are present in your model?

2. Measure the thicknesses of each layer, including subdivisions of main layers. Record the thicknesses in a data table like the one shown on the next page.

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Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________


3. Examine your model for how well it represents materials that make up Earth’s layers. Summarize your observations in the data table below.

Layer Actual Earth Thickness

Model Thickness

Earth Material

Model Material

Upper mantle (part of the lithosphere)

100 km peridotite

4. Evaluate your work for scale and materials used.

5. Decide whether or not your hypothesis was supported by the research you did. Explain your reasoning.

Lab: Version B CONTINUED

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Going Further

Challenge 6. Several science-fiction books have written about journeys to the center of Earth. Theorize why

this would be impossible.

7. If you could travel to the center of Earth, calculate how far you would need to travel. Decide if this figure would be different if you measured from the poles versus from the equator.

8. A friend describes Earth’s crust by saying it is only skin-deep. Evaluate this description.

ExtensionCreate another model of Earth. In this model, create a cross section labeling the sublevels of Earth and their depths, composition, and temperatures. The cross section will resemble a slice of pizza. Create arc lines to divide each layer. Color each layer with a different color. Challenge: Create a scale model. Find the depth of each layer. Convert these depths to distances that can be measured on a piece of paper. Make each layer to scale.

Lab: Version B CONTINUED

CommunicateIn the 1860s Jules Verne wrote a fictional story about a Journey to the Center of the Earth. Scientists of his time didn’t know as much as we do about Earth’s interior. Write a one-page story about an imaginary journey to Earth’s center using what you have learned in this chapter.

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Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________

Target Your Reading

Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________

Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter. 1. Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements below on your worksheet or on a

numbered sheet of paper. • Write an A if you agree with the statement. • Write a D if you disagree with the statement.

2. After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements. • If any of your answers changed, explain why. • Change any false statements into true statements. • Use your revised statements as a study guide.

BeforeYou Read

A or DStatement

AfterYou Read

A or D

1. Energy from the Sun changes Earth’s landscapes.

2. Earth’s internal energy pushes up the land; surface processes wear it down.

3. Most of Earth, including its interior, is composed of rock.

4. Hardness and color are the two main characteristics of gems used in jewelry.

5. Matter and energy move from Earth’s interior toward the surface.

6. Heat is always escaping from Earth’s interior.

7. Humans have drilled holes and collected samples to about 500 km deep in Earth.

8. There is one type of crust near Earth’s surface, and it is found on the continents.

9. The thickest of Earth’s layers is the core.

10. Seismic waves do not penetrate Earth’s layers.

Earth’s StructureCHAPTER 2

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Name __________________________________________________ Date _____________________ Class ____________

Chapter Content Mastery

Directions: Complete each sentence by underlining the correct answer in parentheses.

1. Mountains and plateaus are created by (volcanoes/uplift).

2. Next to mountain belts, (valleys/deserts) form.

3. California’s Great Central Valley has fertile soil that was transported there by (water/wind).

4. Rivers carve (U-shaped/V-shaped) valleys in rock.

5. The Sierra Nevada Mountains and the (Rocky Mountains/Coastal Range) are California landforms.

6. Wind, water, ice, and gravity cause (erosion/flooding) to change the shape of mountains.

7. Beaches are (temporary/permanent) landforms made of sediment.

8. Features sculpted into Earth’s surface are called (landforms/layers).

9. Heat energy from (inside/outside) Earth pushes up the landscape.

10. Violent volcanic eruptions can (lower/raise) the height of a mountain peak.

11. The force of a (glacier/volcano) shaped Yosemite Valley.

12. The crater at Lassen Peak was made by (internal/external) force.

LandformsCHAPTER 2

LESSON 1

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Directions: For each of the following, write the letter of the term described.

1. these are ideal for jewelry because they can be cut and polished A. gems B. rocks C. minerals D. foliated rocks

2. these rocks form from existing rocks that have been heated and squeezed. A. lava B. igneous C. metamorphic D. sedimentary

3. this forms when magma cools quickly A. sand B. minerals C. small crystals D. large crystals

4. process by which rocks change from one type to another A. crust B. ocean C. rock cycle D. volcanic cycle

5. a solid with a repeating pattern of atoms A. rock B. gem C. crystal D. sediment

6. these are mined from rich deposits of minerals and processed to make useful things A. ores B. gems C. rocks D. sediment

7. minerals are made of these in definite proportions A. atoms B. magma C. crystals D. elements

8. number of minerals that have been identified A. 120 B. 400 C. 4,000 D. 100,000

Directions: Use the terms below to identify the type of rock that is being formed in each picture.

igneous metamorphic sedimentary

9. 10. 11.

Rocks and MineralsCHAPTER 2

LESSON 2

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Directions: Complete the concept map using the terms listed below.

asthenosphere crust inner core lithosphere mantle

Earth’s InteriorCHAPTER 2

LESSON 3

Directions: Answer each question on the lines provided.

6. What clues help geologists learn about Earth’s interior?

7. How did rock density affect the formation of Earth’s layers?

8. What two processes does convection produce?

deepest layer is next layer is largest layer is outer layer is

Earth’s

outer core1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

upper part is lower part is

Nombre _______________________________________________ Fecha _____________________ Clase ____________

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Dominio del contenido

Instrucciones: Completa cada oración correctamente subrayando la repuesta correcta entre paréntesis.

1. Las montañas y las mesetas son creadas por (volcanes/subida).

2. A un lado de un cinturón de montañas, se forman (valles/desiertos).

3. El valle central de California tiene tierra fértil que fue transportada allí por (agua/aire).

4. Los ríos tallan valles en las rocas en la forma de (U/V).

5. Las Montañas de la Sierra Nevada y las (Montañas Rocosas/Cordillera Costera) son formas terrestres de California.

6. El aire, el agua, el hielo y la gravedad causan (erosión/inundaciones) para cambiar la forma de las montañas.

7. Las playas son formas terrestres (temporales/permanentes) hechas de sedimento.

8. Las características esculpidas en la superficie de la Tierra se llaman (formas terrestres/estratos).

9. La energía del calor (dentro de/fuera de) la Tierra empuja la superficie terrestre.

10. Las erupciones violentas de los volcanes pueden (bajar/subir) la altura de la cima de una montaña.

11. La fuerza de un (glaciar/volcán) formó el Valle Yosemite.

12. El cráter en Lassen Peak fue hecho por fuerzas (internas/externas).

Superficies TerrestresCAPÍTULO 2

LECCIÓN 1


14 Estructura de la Tierra

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Instrucciones: Para cada una de las siguientes, escribe la letra del término describido.

1. estas son ideales para la joyería porque se pueden cortar y pulir. A. Gemas B. Rocas C. Minerales D. Rocas foliadas

2. estas rocas se forman de rocas existentes que se han calentado y reducido A. lavas B. ígneas C. metamórficas D. sedimentarias

3. esto se forma cuando el magma se enfría rápidamente A. arena B. minerales C. cristales chicos D. cristales grandes

4. el proceso por el cual las rocas cambian de una clase a otra A. estrato B. océano C. ciclo de las rocas D. ciclo volcánico

5. esto es un sólido con patrones de átomos que se repiten A. roca B. gema C. cristal D. sedimento

6. estos son extraídas de depósitos ricos en minerales y procesados para hacer cosas útiles A. minerales B. gemas C. rocas D. sedimentos

7. los minerales están hechos de estos en proporciones definitivas A. átomos B. magma C. cristales D. elementos

8. el numero de minerales que se han identificado hasta hoy A. 120 B. 400 C. 4,000 D. 100,000

Instrucciones: Usa los siguientes términos para identificar la clase de roca que se está formando en cada retrato.

ígneas metamórficas sedimentarias

9. 10. 11.

Las rocas y los mineralesCAPÍTULO 2

LECCIÓN 2

Estructura de la Tierra 15


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Instrucciones: Completa el mapa de conceptos usando los siguientes términos.

astenosfera estrato litosfera manto núcleo interior

El interior de la TierraCAPÍTULO 2

LECCIÓN 3

Instrucciones: Contesta las siguientes preguntas.

6. ¿Qué pistas ayudan a los geólogos a aprender acerca del interior de la Tierra?

7. ¿Cómo afectó la densidad de las rocas a la formación de los estratos de la Tierra?

8. ¿Cuáles son los dos procesos que producen la convección?

el estrato más profundo de la

Tierra es

el próximo estrato de la

Tierra es

el estrato más grande de la

Tierra es

el estrato exterior de la

Tierra es

núcleo exterior1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

la parte superior es

la parte más baja es


16 Estructura de la Tierra

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Reinforcement


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Landforms

Directions: Complete the following sentences using the terms below.

beaches erosion glacier landforms river uplift volcano

1. The U-shaped valley in Yosemite National Park was formed by a .

2. A canyon or a V-shaped valley is carved by a .

3. California’s Great Central Valley was formed by the of the surrounding mountains.

4. The cone-shaped peak of Mount Shasta was formed by layers of rock material deposited by

a .

5. Valleys and are common landforms resulting from erosion and deposition of Earth’s surface materials.

6. Earth’s surface is covered with created by internal and external forces.

7. The Sierra Nevada and the Coastal Ranges are mountain belts created

by .

Directions: Answer each question on the lines provided.

8. How is a plateau formed?

9. What would happen if rivers did not continuously move grain-sized sediment to the coastline?

10. What causes most erosion?

CHAPTER 2

LESSON 1

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Reinforcement


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Minerals and Rocks

Directions: Complete the following sentences using the correct terms.

1. A(n) is a naturally occurring solid with a definite structure and composition.

2. A(n) is a mixture of solid particles called grains.

3. A solid called a has atoms that are arranged in an orderly pattern.

4. A mineral that is rare and can be cut and polished is called a(n) .

5. A mineral is called a(n) if it is considered valuable and can be made into something such as steel.

6. When melted rock cools or hardens on or under Earth’s surface, it forms rock.

7. rock forms when small pieces of other rocks are deposited in layers and are cemented together by dissolved mineral material.

8. Heat, pressure, and hot, watery fluids applied to solid rock change it into rock.

9. The three major rock groups are changed in the by natural forces.

10. Some minerals with a closely packed atom structure have a high .

Directions: Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

14

11 12 13

16 17

15

CHAPTER 2

LESSON 2

Down

11. a break with smooth, regular edges 12. the Mohs scale classifies minerals

according to this property 13. a break with jagged or rough edges 14. a solid with a repeating pattern of

atoms

Across

15. magnetite will attract this 16. how light reflects from a mineral’s surface 17. color of powdered mineral

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Reinforcement


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Earth’s Interior

Directions: Label the following diagram using the terms listed below.

asthenosphere crust inner core

lithosphere outer core

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Directions: Complete the following sentences using the correct terms.

6. The is the densest layer of Earth because it is made of solid iron.

7. The temperature and pressure of the material within Earth with depth.

8. The study of waves from earthquakes has helped scientists understand the interior layers.

9. crust is made of basalt, a dense igneous rock.

10. Granite is a low-density rock that makes up the crust.

11. The crust and upper layer of the form the solid brittle layer of the lithosphere.

12. The partly melted, plastic-like rock of the lower mantle is called

the .

13. A process called causes liquid rock to move.

CHAPTER 2

LESSON 3

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Enrichment Canada’s Landscape

About a million years ago, the climate in what is now Canada began to cool, and snow accumulated to form great ice sheets across the land. As the ice became heavier, it began to move, scouring the landscape and picking up a collection of clay, sand, and gravel that acted like a giant sheet of sandpaper on the land. The glaciers moved rocks, gouged out valleys, rounded hilltops, and shaved the sides off mountains.

Then, as the climate warmed, the glaciers melted and slowly retreated, but their imprint on the landscape can be seen even today.

Evidence Left BehindFor example, Canada’s mountains still show

the effects with cirques (basins) eroded out of mountaintops. There are also arêtes—jagged knifelike ridges formed where cirques on opposite sides of a mountain meet. Other features include rugged peaks called horns, where the mountain was eroded on several sides, and gaps between two mountain horns called cols.

When the glaciers melted, the rushing water filled the depressions in the land. Tarns—or lakes at the bottoms of cirques—filled with water, while other depressions also became lakes. The present-day Great Lakes are the remains of larger lakes that filled with the enormous amount of water from the glaciers.

Glacial FeaturesIn addition, the makeup of the land itself still

shows the effects of the glaciers. Huge boulders were carried great distances and left behind when the ice retreated. Till, a mixture of clay and rock, was deposited in gently rolling plains when the glacier had picked up more debris than it could carry. Moraines, long ridges of sediment, were deposited in glacial streams.

All of these features can be seen when traveling through Canada’s rugged terrain. While the ancient glaciers have been gone for thousands of years, the evidence of their movement remains.

CHAPTER 2

LESSON 1

Directions: Use the passage and the image below to answer the following questions.

CirqueHorn

Col

Tarn

1. Explain why Canada might be an ideal location to study the effects of glacial movement.

2. Describe what a cirque is and what other features it helps form. Use a separate piece of paper.

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Enrichment Analyzing Rocks

In this activity, you will identify rocks from a group of unidentified rock samples.

Materials rock samples (9)paper and pencilstreak platehand lens

CHAPTER 2

LESSON 2

Observations

Rock Sample Observations

Rock Color Observations/Ideas Description Conclusion

1 gray hard, has lots of little pores

light and floats pumice

2

Analyze and Conclude

1. Indicate which of your observations helped you identify each rock.

2. Identify Vinegar is slightly acidic. How could vinegar help you identify the rocks?

1. Refer to the rock identification chart in the appendix of your textbook. Also, see the National Audubon Society’s Field Guide to North American Rocks and Minerals. On a piece of paper, copy the table with headings as shown below. Add seven rows to your table so that you can note your observations on each of the nine rock samples. Some observations are recorded. Label each unidentified rock with a number, one through nine.

2. Observe the grains, crystals, banding, and other characteristics of the rock samples.

3. Record your observations of the unidentified rock samples on the table you made. Use this information to draw a conclusion about each sample’s identity. When you feel confident about your conclusion, write it down in the last column. Label each rock with your conclusion.

Procedure

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Enrichment Core Spin

Geologists have been able to drill only about 12 km deep into Earth, so they have relied on other technology to provide them with information about the inner layers of the planet. Scientists have recently discovered that the solid inner core is spinning.

Earth’s CoreThe inner core is a solid, hot ball of iron. Its

diameter is 2,414 km, making the core slightly smaller than the size of the Moon. A molten-rock outer core that is 6,769 km wide surrounds the inner core. Scientists believe that when the planet formed, dense iron material sank to the core and was further compacted by pressure 3.5 million times that on Earth’s surface. The inner core, at 5,537°C, is believed to be hotter than the surface of the Sun.

Seismic Wave StudyThe study of seismic wave data from

earthquakes was the key to discovering the movement of the inner core. Seismographs recorded the speed and shape of the waves produced by earthquakes near Sandwich Island, located in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The waves passed through the inner core and were recorded in Alaska. Scientists found that the speed and shape of waves created by earthquakes in different years were the same for the waves going through the outer core. However, they found that the speed and shape of waves traveling through the inner core were different over a period of years. The faster rotation of the inner core is thought by scientists to be produced by the interaction between the magnetic fields of the inner and outer cores.

CHAPTER 2

LESSON 3

Directions: Respond to each question or statement using complete sentences.

1. Compare the speed of the inner core of Earth to the speed of the rest of Earth. What are the reasons for the differences?

2. Predict what future seismic wave data from Sandwich Island earthquakes might suggest about Earth’s inner core.

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Content Vocabulary

Directions: Write the correct terms next to their definitions on the lines provided.

asthenosphere core crust erosion landform

lava lithosphere magma mantle mineral

plateau rock uplift

1. wearing away of soil and rock by wind, water, ice, and gravity

2. large flat area that has been lifted by a natural force

3. an inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a definite chemical makeup

4. feature sculpted on Earth’s surface by internal or external forces

5. process that moves the surface of Earth to a higher elevation

6. thick middle layer of rock beneath the crust

7. partly-melted, but solid, layer of the mantle that flows

8. rock material inside Earth from which igneous rocks are made

9. molten rock that has reached the surface

10. thin, brittle, rocky outer layer of Earth

11. natural solid mixture of minerals and other particles

12. crust and uppermost mantle that forms a brittle outer layer of Earth

13. dense metallic center of Earth made of a solid layer and a molten layer

CHAPTER 2

Earth’s Structure

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Content Vocabulary CONTINUED

Directions: Fill in the term that matches each definition below.

beach cleavage density foliationfraction igneous metamorphic orerock cycle sediment sedimentary streak

14. Internal and external forces change rocks in the process called

the .

15. Heat, pressure, and hot fluids change existing rock into rock.

16. Parallel layering of dark and light mineral grains in a rock is

called .

17. A rich deposit of a valuable mineral is called an .

18. Melted rock from inside Earth cools and forms rock.

19. Tiny grains of rock erode off mountains and eventually make a shoreline landform called

a .

20. A mineral’s shows the color of powder it produces when scratched.

21. Wind, water, ice, and gravity move to new locations.

22. rocks are made of particles that have been compressed and cemented together.

23. Mica has because it breaks along a smooth, flat surface.

24. Quartz displays because it breaks along rough surfaces.

25. Minerals with atoms packed closely together tend to have higher .

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Chapter Review

Part A. Vocabulary Review

Directions: Find the word that matches the description, and write the correct letter in the space provided.

CHAPTER 2

Earth’s Structure

A. magma

B. crust

C. mantle

D. erosion

E. rock

F. density

G. lithosphere

H. mineral

I. uplift

J. rock cycle

K. sediment

L. asthenosphere

M. core

N. lava

O. landforms

1. features sculpted by surface processes

2. process that elevates the surface of Earth

3. surface process that wears away soil and rock

4. natural, solid mixture of mineral particles

5. natural solid made of crystals with a repeating atom pattern

6. tiny grains eroded from rock

7. molten rock inside Earth

8. molten rock located at Earth’s surface

9. processes that change one kind of material into another

10. amount of material an object contains in the space it occupies

11. thin, rocky outer layer of Earth

12. thick middle layer of solid and liquid rock

13. partly-melted, but still mostly solid, layer of the mantle

14. solid, hot innermost layer of Earth

15. Earth’s brittle outer layer, made of the crust and the upper mantle

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Chapter Review CONTINUED

Part B. Concept Review

1. Compare how internal and external forces affect mountains.

2. Select the correct words to complete the following paragraph about the physical properties of minerals.

cleavage fracture hardness luster streak

The of a mineral can be observed by how easily it is scratched. The

color of the powder that results when a mineral is scratched is its . The

way a mineral’s surface reflects light is called . When a mineral breaks

along rough or irregular surfaces, it displays . If it breaks along

smooth, flat surfaces, it has .

3. Compare and contrast how igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are formed.

4. Arrange the layers of Earth in order by numbering them from 1 to 5, with 1 being the outside layer.

asthenosphere

inner core

crust

lithosphere

outer core

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Chapter Outline

Lesson 1: Landscapes

A. Landscape Formation

1. Features sculpted by surface processes are called .

2. is a process that moves the surface of Earth to a higher elevation.

a. Earth’s internal energy moves rock material and produces uplift.

b. When a large, flat area is uplifted, a is formed.

c. A mountain forms when a non-flat uplifted area has many slopes.

d. are formed when internal heat melts rock and pushes it out of the surface.

3. is a surface process that wears away soil and rock.

a. , , ,

and break apart the rocks, changing mountains to plains.

b. Rivers and streams carry rock fragments , carving

and steep-sided .

c. Ocean move rock fragments along the coastline.

B. California Landforms

1. forces cause valleys to form.

a. Glaciers carved a valley in the surface of California’s Yosemite National Park.

b. Rivers usually carve sharper, valleys in rock.

2. forces cause volcanic eruptions that alter the landscape by spewing molten rock material, gas, and ash.

a. The violent eruption of Lassen Peak in the Mountain Range in

1915 blasted out a at the summit.

CHAPTER 2

Landscapes

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Chapter Outline CONTINUED

b. The California and the are mountains that were created when solid rock was pushed up, forming high peaks.

c. The -shaped Mount Shasta was formed by layers of melted rock

from a .

3. Next to the California mountain belts are flat, open .

a. Water transports eroded material down from mountains to make the fertile

of California’s Great Central .

b. Rivers carve deep, narrow as they flow from the Sierra Nevada toward the Pacific Ocean.

4. Sand-sized grains of rock from the mountains form along the Pacific coast.

a. Ocean moving parallel to the shore wash away sand.

b. are temporary features that must have

added constantly in order to exist.

Lesson 2: Minerals and Rocks

A. Minerals

1. are substances that form rocks.

2. Minerals have main characteristics.

a. They are substances found in the world, such as diamonds.

b. They are made by things.

c. They occur in the form of only, not liquids or gases.

d. They are made of crystals with a structure containing

in patterns.

e. They are made of specific in

definite .

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B. Properties of Minerals

1. Each mineral has properties that are used to identify it.

a. You can test the hardness of a mineral by observing how easily it is

and by referencing the Hardness Scale.

b. A mineral’s can sometimes help identify it.

c. A mineral’s is the color of powder produced when it is scratched.

d. is the way a mineral’s surface reflects light.

e. Each crystal has a distinct , which sometimes is referred to as crystal structure.

f. If a crystal breaks along smooth, flat surfaces, it has .

g. When a mineral breaks along rough or irregular surfaces, it

displays .

h. Some minerals, such as metals, have a higher than others.

2. Some minerals are magnetic, react to , or interact

with .

C. Mineral Uses

1. Rich deposits of minerals that are used to make valuable things are

called .

a. is a common metal used in wires to conduct electricity.

b. Iron used to make comes from hematite and magnetite.

c. Galena is the major ore for producing , used to make auto batteries.

2. Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, are among the most valuable

.

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D. Rocks

1. A is a natural, solid mixture of particles mainly made of

individual mineral , broken bits of ,

or fragments of .

2. rocks are formed from , or liquid,

rock material called .

a. Magma located at the surface, called ,

cools , forming crystals.

b. Inside Earth, magma cools , and crystals

grow .

3. rocks form when solid rocks are ,

, or exposed to fluids.

a. The growth of new results from these forces.

b. produces parallel layers of light and dark mineral grains from

the force of uneven .

4. is changed into rock as grains are

by the weight of the material above them.

5. The series of processes that changes one rock into another is called

the .

Lesson 3: Earth’s Interior

A. Layers and Seismic Waves

1. Earth’s interior is made up of with different compositions.

a. Scientists have learned about Earth’s layers by analyzing the paths of

waves produced by .

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2. The thin, brittle, rocky outer layer of Earth is called the .

a. The thin crust under the is made of

igneous rocks called and gabbro.

b. The crust is made of -density

igneous rocks like .

3. The is the thick middle layer of rock beneath the crust.

a. The partly solid layer of the mantle is called the .

4. Below the asthenosphere, the hot rock has been by pressure and

turns into the rock of the .

a. The core is very dense because it is made mainly of elements like iron and nickel.

b. The has two layers: the metal

outer core and the solid .

5. The crust and the uppermost mantle form the brittle outer layer of Earth called

the .

B. Heat Transfer in Earth

1. The temperature and pressure inside Earth change the of rock material.

a. Billions of years ago, dense core material was pulled by

into the mantle.

b. Less-dense crust matter moved toward the .

2. Heat energy in Earth’s outer core and mantle escapes toward the surface mostly

by .

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