Chapter

19 Managing Change and Stress

Managing Change and Stress

Forces of ChangeForces of Change Models and Models and

Dynamics of Dynamics of Planned Planned

ChangeChange Understanding Understanding andand

Managing Managing ResistanceResistance

to Changeto Change Dynamics of Dynamics of StressStress

Forces of Change

External

Demographic Characteristics

Technological Advancements

Market Changes

Social and Political PressuresThe Need for Change

19-2Figure 19-1

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Internal

Human Resource Problem/Prospects

A Generic Typology of Organizational Change

Adaptive Change

Innovative Change

Radically Innovative

Change

Reintroducing a familiar

practice

Introducing a practice new to the

organization

Introducing a practice new

to the industry

Degree of complexity, cost, and uncertainty Potential for resistance to change

Low High

19-3Figure 19-3

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Assumptions Underlying Lewin’s Change Model

1) The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing current attitudes, behaviors, and organizational practices

2) Change will not occur unless there is motivation to change

3) People are the hub of all organizational changes4) Resistance to change is found even when the goals

are highly desirable5) Effective change requires reinforcing new behaviors,

attitudes, and organizational practices

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Lewin’s Change Model

ChangingProvides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at thingsHelps employees learn new concepts or points of viewRole models, mentors, experts, benchmarking results, and training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change

RefreezingHelps employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing thingsPositive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired changeCoaching and modeling help reinforce the stability of change

Unfreezing Creates the motivation to change Encourages the replacement of old behaviors and

attitudes with those desired by management Entails devising ways to reduce barriers to change Creates psychological safety

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A Systems Model of Change

Organizing Arrangement

s

PeopleGoals Social

Factors

Methods

Target Elements of Change

Internal Strengths

Weaknesses

External Opportunities

Threats

Inputs

Internal Organizational

level

Department/

group level

Individual level

Outputs

Strategy

19-6Figure 19-3

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Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Organizational Change

Create and implement a communication strategy that consistently communicates the new vision and strategic plan

4) Communicate the change-vision

Create a vision and strategic plan to guide the change process

3) Develop a vision and strategy

Create a cross-functional, cross-level group of people with enough power to lead the change

2) Create the guiding coalition

Unfreeze the organization by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed

1) Establish a sense of urgency

DescriptionStep

19-7Table 19-1

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Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Organizational Change

Reinforce the changes by highlighting connections between new behaviors and processes and organizational success

8) Anchor new approaches in the culture

The guiding coalition uses credibility from short-terms wins to create change. Additional people are brought into the change process as change cascades throughout the organization

7) Consolidate gains and produce more change

Plan for and create short-term “wins” or improvements

6) Generate short-term wins

Eliminate barriers to change, use target elements of change to transform the organization

5) Empower broad-based action

DescriptionStep

19-8Table 19-1 cont.

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Organizational Development

Organizational Development a set of techniques or tools that are used to implement organizational change

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Characteristics of Organizational Development

OD Involves Profound Change OD is Value-Loaded OD is a Diagnosis/Prescription Cycle OD is Process-Oriented

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Why People Resist Change in the Workplace

1) An individuals’ predisposition toward change

2) Surprise and fear of the unknown

3) Climate of mistrust4) Fear of failure5) Loss of status and/or job

security

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Why People Resist Change in the Workplace Cont.

6) Peer pressure7) Disruption of cultural

traditions and/or group relationships

8) Personality conflicts9) Lack of tact and/or poor

timing10) Nonreinforcing reward

systems

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The Continuum of Resistance to Change

Enthusiastic

Cooperation

Cooperation under pressure from management

Acceptance

Passive resignation

Indifference

Apathy or loss of interest in the job

Doing only what is ordered

Regressive behavior

Nonlearning

Protests

Working to rule

Doing as little as possible

Slowing down

Personal withdrawal

Committing “errors”

Spoliage

Deliberate sabotage

Acceptance

Indifference

Passive Resistance

Active Resistance

19-13Figure 19-4

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Overcoming Resistance to Change

Can be very time consuming if participators design an inappropriate change

People who participate will be committed to the implementation of change

The initiators do not have all the information they need to design the change & others have considerable power to resist

Participation + Involvement

Can be very time consuming if lots of people are involved

Once persuaded, people will often help with implementation of change

There is a lack of information or inaccurate information & analysis

Education + Communication

DrawbacksAdvantagesCommonly Used in Situations Where:

Approach

19-14Table 19-2

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Overcoming Resistance to Change

DrawbacksAdvantagesCommonly Used in Situations Where:

Approach

19-15Table 19-2 cont.

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Can be very time consuming, expensive and still fail

No other approach works as well with adjustment problems

People are resisting because of adjustment problems

Facilitation + Support

Can be too expensive in may cases if it alerts other to negotiate for compliance

Sometimes it is a relatively easy way to avoid major change

Someone or some group will clearly lose out in a change and where that group has considerable power to resist

Negotiation + Agreement

Overcoming Resistance to Change

Can be very risky ad leave people made at the initiators

It is speedy and can overcome any kind of resistance

Speed is essential and where the change initiators possess considerable power

Explicit + Implicit coercion

Can lead to future problems if people feel manipulated

It can be relatively quick and inexpensive

Other tactics will not work or are too expensive

Manipulation + Co-optation

DrawbacksAdvantagesCommonly Used in Situations Where:

Approach

19-16Table 19-2 cont.

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Stress

Stress Stress behavioral, physical, or psychological response to stressors Stress is not merely

nervous tension Stress can have

positive consequences Stress is not

something to be avoided

The complete absence of stress is death

Stress is inevitable

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Stressors

Stressors environmental factors that produce stress Cognitive Appraisal of Stressors

Reflect an individual’s overall perception or evaluation of a stressor

Primary Appraisal determining whether a stressor is irrelevant, positive, or stressful

Secondary Appraisal assessing what might and can be done to reduce stress

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Occupational StressPotential Stressors Outcomes

Individual Level

Group Level

Organizational Level

Extraorganizational Level

Psychological/Attitudinal

Behavioral

Cognitive

Physical Stress

Cognitive Appraisal

Coping Strategies

Moderators

19-19Figure 19-5

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Moderators of Occupational Stress

Moderators variables that cause the relationships between stressors, perceived stress and outcomes to be weaker for some and stronger for others Awareness of moderators helps identify

those more likely to experience stress and negative outcomes

Suggest possible solutions for reducing negative outcomes

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Social Support

Social Support amount of helpfulness derived from social relationships Esteem support Informational support Social companionship Instrumental support

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Hardiness

Hardiness personality characteristic that neutralizes stress Embraces personality dimensions

Commitment Internal Locus of Control Challenge

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Type A Behavior Pattern

Type A Behavior Pattern aggressively involved in a chronic, determined struggle to accomplish more in less time

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Type A Characteristics

1) Hurried speech; explosive accentuation of key words

2) Tendency to walk, move, or eat rapidly3) Constant impatience with rate at which most

events take place4) Strong preference for thinking of or doing two

or more things at once5) Tendency to turn conversations around to

personally meaningful subjects or themes

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Type A Characteristics

6) Tendency to interrupt while others are speaking to make your point or to complete their train of thought in your own words

7) Guilt feelings during periods of relaxation or leisure time

8) Tendency to be oblivious to surroundings during daily activities

9) Greater concern for things worth having than with things worth being

19-25Table 19-3

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Type A Characteristics

10) Tendency to schedule more and more in less and less time; a chronic sense of time urgency

11) Feelings of competition rather than compassion when faced with another Type A person

12) Development of nervous tics or characteristic gestures

13) A firm belief that success is due to the ability to get things done faster than the other guy

14) A tendency to view and evaluate personal activities and the activities of other people in terms of “numbers”

19-26Table 19-3 cont.

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