Chapter 16Waste Generation and

Waste Disposal

Until a society becomes relatively wealthy, it generates little waste. Every object that no longer serves it original purpose becomes

useful for something else. 1900s US – Junk dealers or scrap metal dealers – no one called it

recycling back then After World War II – rapid population growth in US led to

increased consumption patterns Increasing industrialization and wealth, as well as cultural changes,

made it possible for people to purchase household conveniences that could be used and thrown away.

Planned Obsolescence – the design of a product so that it will need to be replaced within a few years Everything from toasters to cars TV dinners, throw-away napkins, disposable plates and forks United States became the leader of what came to be known as a

“throw-away society.” Planned obsolescence – most significant contributor to this.

The Throw Away Society

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) - Refuse collected by municipalities from households, small businesses, and institutions such as schools, prisons, municipal buildings and hospitals. Residences – 60% Commercial – 40%

Waste generation varies by season of the year, socioeconomic status of the individual, and geographic location within the country.

Municipal Solid Waste

Containers and packaging comprise the greatest amount of MSW

Electronic waste (E-waste) televisions, computers, cell phones that contain toxic metals. Older cathode-ray tube (CRT) television or computer

monitors contains 1-2 kg (2.2-4.4 lbs) of the heavy metal lead as well as other toxic metals such as mercury and cadmium.

Costs more to recycle a computer than put it in a landfill In US, most electronic devices are not designed to be

easily dismantled after they are discarded. Much E-waste from US is exported to China where

adults and children separate valuable metals using fire and acids with no protective clothing or respiratory gear.

E-Waste

Reduce- waste minimization or prevention Source reduction – seeks to reduce waste by

reducing, in the early stages of design and manufacture, the use of materials – toxic and otherwise – destined to become MSW. A company that produces laundry detergent switches

from distributing its product in plastic bottles to instead using flexible pouches that require 84% less packaging.

Reuse- reusing something like a disposable cup more than once Flea markets, eBay, Craigslist, and Freecycle

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Recycle- materials are collected and converted into raw materials and then used to produce new objects Closed-loop recycling – recycling of a product into the same

product Aluminum cans

Open-loop recycling – one product (plastic soda bottles) Is recycled into another product (polar fleece jackets). Avoids sending materials to the landfill, but does not reduce

demand for raw materials (ex. Petroleum), to make new bottles Single stream or zero-sort recycling – allow residents to mix

all types of recyclables in one container. Sorting facility workers sort materials in categories that are in

the greatest demand at a given time and offer greatest economic return.

Pine Grove Area School District - The recycling collected at your school goes to a transfer station in Coal Township. There it is loaded into a 53 foot trailer and transported to a facility in Philadelphia. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GP3JuiX5BY

One of the greatest problems with recycling – there is not always a market for recycled goods

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Compost- organic material that has decomposed under controlled conditions to produce an organic-rich material. Roughly 33% of current MSW could be

composted Benefits of Composting:

reduced volume of material ending up in a landfill generation of rich organic fertilizer reduced amount of methane generated in

landfills reduced amount of energy needed to transport

material to a landfill

Composting

Sanitary landfills- engineered ground facilities designed to hold MSW with as little contamination of the surrounding environment as possible. Primary method of disposal for MSW in US Constructed with clay or plastic lining at the bottom Clay used because it can stop water flow and retain positively

charged ions, like metals. Pipes constructed to collect leachate and methane

Methane could be extracted and used as fuel or burned off Leachate- the water that leaches through the solid waste and removes

various chemical compounds with which it comes into contact. Could be extracted and transported to a wastewater treatment facility

Cover of soil and slay, called a cap, installed when landfill reaches capacity.

MSW periodically compacted into cells – reduces the volume of solid waste – increases capacity of landfill.

Closed landfill can be reclaimed – planted with shallow-rooted plants – parks, playgrounds, golf courses

Tipping fees – each truck put on a scale, and after MSW is weighed it is tipped into the landfill Reimburses construction fee of landfill

Landfills

Should be located in a soil rich in clay to reduce the migration of contaminants.

Located away from rivers, streams, and other bodies of water and drinking water supplies.

Far from population centers, however, as distance increases so does amount of energy required

Regional landfills becoming more common – greatest economic advantage

Siting – designation of a location – always controversial and sometimes politically charged Unsightliness and odor Have been the source of considerable environmental

injustice NIMBY – “Not-in-my-backyard” attitude – People with

financial resources or political influence http://www.freep.com/article/20140224/

BUSINESS07/302240057/Exxon-Mobil-CEO-fracking A site may be chosen not because it meets safety

criteria but because its neighbors lack the resources to mount a convincing opposition.

Choosing a Sanitary Landfill Site

Always a possibility that leachate will contaminate waterways. EPA estimates that virtually all landfills in the US have

some leaching. When waste is compacted into cells and covered

with soil, all the oxygen is used up. Anaerobic decomposition begins, which generates methane and CO2 – both greenhouse gases. Methane also creates an explosion hazard – landfills

are vented so methane does not accumulate Professor William Rathje – University of Arizona –

used bucket auger to obtain information on the decomposition rates of MSW in landfills. Found newspapers with headlines still legible 40 years

after being deposited in landfills. Decomposition only takes place where correct mixture

of air, moisture, and organic matter are present – most landfills do not contain this and will probably remain the sizes they were when capped.

Problems with Landfills

Incineration- the process of burning waste materials to reduce its volume and mass and sometimes to generate electricity and heat. Waste heat and fly ash formed as byproducts of

incineration. Ash – residual nonorganic material that does not

combust during incineration Bottom ash – collected underneath the furnace Fly ash – residue collected beyond the furnace Disposal of the ash is determined by concentration of toxic

metals – lead and cadmium If deemed safe could be used as fill in road construction or

as an ingredient in cement blocks and cement flooring Incineration of certain materials (plastic) could release

acidic gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), which are recovered in a scrubber, neutralized and disposed of in a landfill.

Waste heat – when heat generated by incineration is used rather than released to the atmosphere it is called a waste-to-energy system.

Incineration

High tipping fees to cover construction and operation.

Raises NIMBY and environmental justice issues May release pollutants, such as organic compounds

from incomplete combustion of plastics and metals. Expensive to build so they require large

quantities of daily MSW to be profitable. May not completely burn all waste

Plant operators can monitor oxygen and temperature of the burn – everything lumped together – difficult for uniform burn

Incineration Problems

Hazardous waste- liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste material that is harmful to humans or ecosystems. According to EPA, over 20,000 hazardous waste

generators in the US produce about 40 million tons of hazardous waste/year.

By-product of industrial processes such as textile production, machinery cleaning, computer manufacturing, small businesses (dry cleaners), automobile service stations, and small farms.

Collection sites for hazardous waste must be staffed with specially trained personnel.

Hazardous waste must be treated before disposal.

Hazardous Waste

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)- designed to reduce or eliminate hazardous waste. Also know as “cradle-to-grave” tracking. RCRA ensures that hazardous waste is tracked

and properly disposed of. Main goal is to protect human health and the

natural environment by reducing or eliminating the generation of hazardous waste.

Laws

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)- also know as “Superfund”. Puts a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries.

This revenue is used to cleanup abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites where a responsible party cannot be found.

Requires the federal government to respond directly to the release of substance that may pose a threat to human health or the environment

EPA maintains the National Priorities List (NPL) of contaminated site eligible for cleanup funds.

October 2010 – 1,282 Superfund sites – one in every state except North Dakota

NJ has 114 followed by CA and PA with the next highest number. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/npl/pa.htm

Love Canal, NY http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kjobz14i8kM

Laws

Contaminated industrial or commercial sites that may require environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded. Old factories, industrial areas and

waterfronts, dry cleaners, gas stations, landfills, and rail yards are some examples.

Seattle’s Gasworks Park – previously used as a coal and oil gasification plant – purchased by the city in 1962 to rehabilitate the site into a park. Underwent chemical abatement and

environmental cleanup – now distinctive landmark for the city

Criticized as an inadequate solution – managed entirely by state and local governments – varies widely between regions Lacks legal liability controls to compel

polluters to rehabilitate their properties Without legal recourse many brownfields

sites remain unused and contaminated

Brownfields

http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/success/sslocat.htm

Difficult to dispose of – hazardous waste often sent to countries with less stringent regulations Garbage and ash barges travel the oceans looking

for a developing country willing to accept hazardous waste from the US in exchange for cash payment.

Khian Sea – cargo vessel that left Philadelphia in 1986 with almost 13,000 metric tons of hazardous ash from an incinerator. Traveled to a number of countries in the Caribbean –

some ash dumped in Haiti, some dumped in the ocean In 1996, US ordered that the ash be retrieved and

removed from Haiti and returned to the US Held at a dock in FL – ash was deemed nonhazardous

by the EPA and in 2002 was placed in a landfill in Franklin County, PA – not far from its source of origin.

International Consequences

Life-cycle Analysis – an important systems tool that looks at the materials used and released throughout the lifetime of a product – from the procurement of raw materials through their manufacture, use, and disposal. Often called cradle-to-grave analysis Paper vs. Styrofoam cup in opening story http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CVa4GBze3tU

Life Cycle Analysis

A method that seeks to develop as many options as possible, to reduce environmental harm and cost. Reduction, recycling, composting, landfills, and

incineration are some ways IWM is utilized. Behavior related to use and disposal is considered and

possibly altered in order to obtain the desired outcome – LESS GENERATION OF MSW.

Volkswagen – manufactures some of its cars so that they can be easily taken apart and materials of different composition easily separated to allow recycling. http://en.volkswagen.com/en/company/responsibility/

products/recycling.html

Integrated Waste Management