chapter 14 resource guidechapter 14 resource guide 374a activities that are particularly suited for...

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Chapter 14 Resource Guide

374A

Activities that are particularly suited for use withinthe block-scheduling framework are identified throughout thischapter by the following designation: BLOCK SCHEDULING

Daily Objectives Reproducible Resources Multimedia Resources

Section 1Purposes of Personality TheoriesExplore how personality theoriesprovide a way of organizing themany characteristics that peoplehave.

Section 2Psychoanalytic TheoriesDescribe the three components ofFreud’s psychoanalytic theory: theid, the ego, and the superego.

Section 3Learning TheoriesDetermine how behaviorists thinksome aspects of personality arelearned.

Section 4Humanistic and Cognitive TheoriesExplore how the positive aspects of human nature are emphasizedby the humanistic and cognitivetheories.

Section 5Trait TheoriesExplain how trait theorists accountfor the consistency of behavior indifferent situations.

Guided Reading Activity 14–1Vocabulary Activity 14–1Section Quiz 14–1





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SECTION RESOURCES


374B

ACTIVITY

Shannon RiceSickles High SchoolTampa, FL

From the Classroom of…

Theories of Personality

Time Required: 1 class period

When learning about the major theories of personality,this activity will help students remember which psychol-ogist is responsible for which theory.

In groups of four, students are to create a “charactercollage” of an assigned psychologist (e.g., Freud,Skinner, James, Watson, Erikson, Bandura). The teachercan provide key words and concepts, or the studentscan research this information. On chart paper, the stu-dents will draw a caricature of the psychologist (forexample, exaggerating Freud’s beard and cigar) and cre-ate a collage around the picture filled with words andpictures illustrating key components of the theory. Stu-dents are assigned different tasks: two researchers,one graphic artist, and one project designer.

Teaching strategies have been coded for varying learning styles and abilities.L1 BASIC activities for all studentsL2 AVERAGE activities for average to above-average

studentsL3 CHALLENGING activities for above-average students

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNER activitiesELL

KEY TO ABILITY LEVELS

PSYCHOLOGY

Use our Web site for additional resources. All essential contentis covered in the Student Edition.

You and your students can visit glencoe.com, the Web sitecompanion to Understanding Psychology. This innovativeintegration of electronic and print media offers your students a wealth of opportunities. The student text directs students to the Web site for the following options:

■ Chapter Overviews■ Student Web Activities■ Self-Check Quizzes

Answers are provided for you in the Web Activity Lesson Plan.Additional Web resources and Interactive Puzzles are also available.

• Interactive Teacher Edition Access your TeacherWraparound Edition and your classroom resources with a feweasy clicks.

• Interactive Lesson Planner Planning has never beeneasier! Organize your week, month, semester, or year with allthe lesson helps you need to make teaching creative, timely,and relevant.

™

Timesaving Tools

Use Glencoe’sPresentationPlus! multimediateacher tool toeasily presentdynamic lessonsthat visually excite your students. UsingMicrosoft PowerPoint® you can cus-tomize the presentations to create yourown personalized lessons.

http://glencoe.com

Psychology Projects 4-1 and 4-2

APPLICATION AND HANDS-ON

Graphic Organizer Activity 14

14 Graphic Organizer Activities

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Graphic OrganizerActivity 14 Theories of

Personality

Directions: Psychologists have developed five major theories of personality. Complete the graphicorganizer by listing the five major theories in the boxes to the left. Then list the names of the psycholo-gists who helped to develop the theory in the boxes in the center. Finally, list the key concepts of eachtheory in the boxes to the right.

Personality Theories

PsychologistsAssociated With Theory

Key Concepts of Theories

Chapter 14 Concept Transparencies Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM

ExamView® Assessment Suite CD-ROM

TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM

Glencoe Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook, Level 2

Presentation Plus! Software

Reteaching Activity 14

28 Reteaching Activities

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Working with Psychology

11. Review Raymond Cattell’s list of 16 source traits. Find a profile of a person in a magazine or watch anin-depth interview with someone on a news magazine program. The profile may be of a well-knownperson or a person that has recently received attention for something he or she has done or some-thing that happened to him or her. As you read or listen to the profile, take notes about the traits youobserve in the person. Prepare a chart of Cattell’s 16 source traits for the person. If you did not learnanything about the person for some of the traits mark them as unknown.

Connecting Ideas

Directions: Behaviorism and the social cognitive theory seek to explain how behaviors are learned. Readeach of the scenarios below. Then answer the questions about how a behaviorist and a social learningtheorist would explain the behaviors.

Scenario AAllan is four years old. Both of his parents work and he goes to preschool. Recently his mother has madeseveral out-of-town trips. Even though she talks to Allan by phone daily, she often sees him only one ortwo days a week. Recently, Allan has begun refusing to go to bed. He throws temper tantrums andscreams until his father gives in. Allan usually falls asleep on the couch next to his father. His father hasto carry him to bed. If Allan accidentally awakens, he often refuses to go back to sleep.

12. What hypothesis might a behaviorist form about Allan’s behavior? How might the hypothesis betested?

13. What factors might a social cognitivist consider in assessing Allan’s behavior?

Scenario BRamona has recently been fatigued and anxious. She has missed at least three days of work each week.She works as a job placement counselor helping people prepare to get their first job. Many of her clientshave never held a job and do not even know how to go about getting a job. Ramona is a sensitive personand wants to help everyone who wants a job to find one. She has had many successes, but recently shehas been unable to help place two single mothers. Ramona has described her fatigue to her doctor, butshe has not been able to find anything physically wrong with Ramona.

14. What hypothesis might a behaviorist form about Ramona’s fatigue and inability to work? How mightthe hypothesis be tested?

15. What factors might a social cognitivist consider in assessing Ramona’s behavior?

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Reteaching Activities 27

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Reteaching Activity 14 Theories of

PersonalityTerms and Concepts

Directions: Place the number of each term in one of the boxes below, connecting it with the correctpsychologist. Then write a definition of the term on the line beside the number.

1. archetype 6. fully functioning2. behaviorism 7. id3. collective unconscious 8. positive regard4. defense mechanisms 9. superego5. ego 10. unconditional positive regard

Sigmund Freud

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Carl Jung

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Carl Rogers

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John Watson

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374C

Application Activity 14

28 Application Activities

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Directions: Read each statement and check either Yes or No. Then cite specific experiences that supporteach of your responses. After completing the chart, answer the questions at the bottom of the page.

Drawing Conclusions

Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

1. What are the benefits of being self-actualized?

2. In this activity, a self-report technique is used to determine self-actualization. What are the problemswith this technique?

STUDENT WORKSHEET

Self-ActualizationApplication

Activity 14Yes No Experiences

1. I set realistic goals for myself and usually meet my goals.

2. I accept other people for what they are without trying to change them.

3. I am usually flexible and spontaneous.

4. I am more problem-centered than self-centered.

5. Sometimes I need to be alone.

6. I am usually pretty independent.

7. I try not to stereotype people.

8. I feel very close to at least one person.

9. I am willing to listen to someone else’s point of view.

10. I can laugh at myself.

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Application Activities 27

Objective

To enable students to understand Abraham Maslow’s theory by applying it to their own lives.

Overview

Students will determine whether or not, according to Maslow’s criteria, they are self-actualized. Teachersshould be aware that the results are personal and students should not be required to disclose the actualresults of the activity.

Introducing the Activity

Point out to students that Maslow’s humanistic theories of personality emphasize human dignity andpotential. According to Maslow, people have a hierarchy of needs, leading up to the highest need of self-actualization. People who are self-actualized adjust to their problems in ways that allow them to behighly productive.

Instructions for Students

Tell students to complete the activity sheet by answering Yes or No and supporting their answers withspecific experiences. Inform students that their results will be kept private and they will not be asked toreveal their answers.

Answer Key

Yes answers indicate self-actualization. Point out that questions with No answers can serve as goalsfor students to improve their self-actualization. Remind students that Maslow established his list ofcharacteristics using prominent and successful people such as Albert Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt,and that the purpose of being self-actualized is to live a happy and productive life.

Student conclusions about the benefits will vary. Benefits include: reaching one’s full potential, hav-ing peak experiences, experiencing quality relationships, accepting oneself, being spontaneous, andappreciating life.

The problem with a self-report technique is that the information reported could be inaccurate andbiased because the individual does not have accurate self-perception.

Discussion Questions

1. Is self-actualization a factor of age and maturity? Support your answer. (Self-actualization is a factorof age and maturity only to the extent that to be self-actualized, a person must first satisfy all thebasic, primary needs.)

2. Would you prefer your friends to be self-actualized? Why or why not? (Most students will say theywant their friends to be self-actualized because of the positive experiences they have when they spendtime with self-actualized people.)

3. Do you agree with Maslow about his criteria of self-actualization? (Student answers will vary. Somestudents may disagree with Maslow’s characteristics, saying that the characteristics are too difficult formost people to realistically achieve.)

Extension Activity

Maslow identified the abilities to take pleasure in simple things and to approach each day with a “senseof discovery” as characteristics of self-actualized people. Have students keep two lists for three days. Onelist identifies the things that made them smile. The other list indicates the new discoveries they madeeach day. Discoveries are new things learned; they do not necessarily involve “book learning.” For exam-ple, you may discover that your neighbor has a new puppy. After three days, ask students to share in asmall group some of the items on each list. Have the group discuss how focusing on what makes themsmile and on new discoveries affects the way they think about themselves.

TEACHER NOTES

14ApplicationActivity Self-Actualization

Note: The following materials may be used when teaching Chapter 14. Section level supportmaterials are shown at point of use in the margins of the Teacher Wraparound Edition.

MULTIMEDIATEACHING TRANSPARENCIES

REVIEW AND REINFORCEMENT

Psychology Projects 14-1 and 14-2

52 Psychology Projects and Lab Activities

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10. Ask all participants to look at their cards. Determine who has the highest card and askif the participant wrote yes or no on his or her index card.

11. Collect the index cards and the playing cards. Thank the participants for helping.

Things to Observe


■ How many participants thought they had the highest card? How many thought theydid not have the highest card?

■ How many participants who thought they had the highest card selected their owncard? How many were dealt the card?

■ How many participants who thought they did not have the highest card selected theirown card? How many were dealt the card?

Analyzing the Results


1. Create a graph to illustrate your results.2. Of the participants who thought they had the highest card, did more of them select

their own card? Offer an explanation.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Psychology Projects and Lab Activities 51

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Concept

Psychologist Julian Rotter became fascinated by Alfred Adler’s idea that people’s beliefsabout their own abilities influence their efforts and achievements. After many experi-ments, Rotter theorized that people behave differently in tasks and games depending onwhether they believed that success depended on luck or skill. If a person believes thatsuccess depends on skill, they work harder (and improve at tasks). If a person believesthat success depends on luck, they do not work as hard. This experiment operates on asimilar principle. Try this experiment to see whether your participants’ behavior differsdepending on their beliefs of whether success depends on luck, or whether they havesome control over their own success.

Materials Needed

■ a standard deck of 52 playing cards■ an index card and pencil for each participant

Assembly

■ no assembly required

Procedure

1. Invite 15 to 25 people to help you with this project. Gather the participants in a roomwith desks or tables and chairs. Ask everyone to take a seat. (All participants must bepresent at the same time.)

2. Pass out the index cards and pencils. 3. Shuffle the cards while standing in front of the group. Explain that each participant

will get a card. The card is to remain face down in front of the participant until youinstruct them to look at it.

4. Starting in the front of the room, hand the top card to one of the participants. Makesure the card is placed face down on the desk or table.

5. Fan the deck of cards out and ask the next participant to draw any card. Again, makesure the card is placed face down on the desk or table.

6. Alternate between “dealing” the top card and letting participants draw a card until allparticipants have a card in front of them.

7. Without looking at their cards, ask participants to decide if they think they have the“highest” card of the cards that are in play. Explain that within each suit the highestcard is the ace, followed by the king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2. Spadesare the highest suit, followed by hearts, diamonds, and then clubs. For example, theace of spades is the highest card in the deck, followed by the ace of hearts, ace of dia-monds, ace of clubs, king of spades, etc.

8. Instruct the participants to write the word “yes” on their index card if they think theyhave the highest card of the cards in play. Instruct them to write “no” if they do notthink they have the highest card.

9. Ask participants who picked their own cards from the deck to put a check mark on theirindex card. Ask participants who were given a card to place an X on their index card.

Are You In Control?

Project14-2


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Data Sheet

Directions: Follow the instructions provided by the person conducting this project.

Pair Number: ❒ Self ❒ Friend

Reserved •———•———•———•———•———•———• Outgoing

Less intelligent •———•———•———•———•———•———• More intelligent

Affected by feelings •———•———•———•———•———•———• Emotionally stable

Submissive •———•———•———•———•———•———• Dominant

Serious •———•———•———•———•———•———• Happy-go-lucky

Expedient •———•———•———•———•———•———• Conscientious

Timid •———•———•———•———•———•———• Venturesome

Tough-minded •———•———•———•———•———•———• Sensitive

Trusting •———•———•———•———•———•———• Suspicious

Practical •———•———•———•———•———•———• Imaginative

Forthright •———•———•———•———•———•———• Shrewd

Self-assured •———•———•———•———•———•———• Apprehensive

Conservative •———•———•———•———•———•———• Experimenting

Group-dependent •———•———•———•———•———•———• Self-sufficient

Uncontrolled •———•———•———•———•———•———• Controlled

Relaxed •———•———•———•———•———•———• Tense

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Psychology Projects and Lab Activities 49

Analyzing the Results


1. Are there any patterns evident in the choices a participant makes about themselves ortheir friend? If so, what are they?

2. How can you explain the differences between what the participant thinks about him-self or herself and what the friend thinks?

3. Is it possible to predict any behavior based on this project?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Concept

Raymond Cattell believed that by measuring the 16 source traits—traits that he consideredto be at the core of personality—psychologists could predict people’s behavior in certainsituations. While personality trait research involves sophisticated research techniques, it isinteresting to use Cattell’s 16 source traits to describe ourselves and people we know.

Materials Needed

■ two data sheets, copied back-to-back, for each participant ■ stopwatch or watch with a second hand

Assembly

■ no assembly required

Procedure

1. Invite five pairs of best friends to participate in this project. You can collect data fromeach pair separately or work with all participants at once. Assign a number to eachpair.

2. Hand each participant a data sheet and have them write their pair number on theappropriate line at the top of the page. Also, instruct them to circle the word SELF atthe top of the page.

3. Ask the participants to look at each set of words and circle one of the dots along theline between the words to indicate where they fall on the continuum. Explain thatthey will have 60 seconds to complete this activity.

4. After 60 seconds, ask participants to turn the data sheets over. Instruct them to writetheir pair number on the appropriate line and circle the word FRIEND at the top ofthe page.

5. Ask participants to look at each set of words and, circle one of the dots along the linebetween the words to indicate where they feel their best friend falls on the continu-um. Again, allow 60 seconds. Make sure participants do not look at what they markedon the other side of the paper.

6. Collect the data sheets and thank the participants for helping. (It is best if you do notallow the friends to share the information on the data sheets.)

Things to Observe

Directions: Complete the following steps on each pair of data sheets.

■ Use the point scale shown below to convert the circles into numbers.

Reserved •———•———•———•———•———•———• Outgoing1 2 3 4 5 6 7

■ Calculate the difference between what the participant marked and what his or herfriend marked on each continuum. (Look at both sheets with the same pair number.Compare the SELF side of one sheet with the FRIEND side of the other.)

Personality TraitsProject14-1


Authentic Assessment Activity 14

Background

One of the pioneers of modern psychology, Sigmund Freud, attracted the attention of scientists andresearchers with his psychoanalytic theory of human personality. The theory has been accepted bysome, debated by many, and rejected by others. One aspect of the theory is the use people make of vari-ous defense mechanisms. Freud viewed these mechanisms as necessary for psychological well-being.

Task

Your local cable provider is creating a series of informational segments to air on the local public accessstation between other community events. You have been asked to write a script for a one-act playdemonstrating various defense mechanisms. The cable company’s public service director has given youthe following general outline for the setting of the play:

There are eight people waiting for a bus on a hot summer afternoon. The bus is late, which increasesthe risk that each of the eight will be late for the appointments or activities which he or she hasscheduled. Each of the eight is using a defense mechanism to ward off or suppress the effects of anxi-eties to which he or she is being subjected. The dialogue among the eight people reveals the defensemechanism each is relying upon to keep anxiety under control.

Target Audience

The audience for your play will be local cable subscribers who watch the community access station.

Objectives

The purpose of the play script is to illustrate how people exhibit the various defense mechanisms thatthey use to control anxiety.

Procedure

1. Consult the Assessment Lists for a play script.2. Research the following eight defense mechanisms: denial, displacement, projection, rationalization,

reaction formation, regression, repression, and sublimation.3. Using your research, write a 12 to 15 page script for a one-act play that involves the people at the bus

stop described above. Through their dialogue, each of the eight characters should clearly expresstheir feelings and reactions using one of the eight mechanisms. The script should show which char-acter is speaking each line and include basic stage directions. Basic stage directions consist of thelook of the set, the movement of the characters, and the reactions of the characters.

4. Read the script aloud to two other students, playing each of the parts. Ask for suggestions to improvethe script.

5. Using the input from the students, revise and finalize the script, then submit it to your teacher.

Assessment

1. Use the classroom Assessment Lists to evaluate your script.2. Discuss what you might do differently for a similar project in the future.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Performance Assessment Strategies and Activities 25

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Performance Assessment Activity 14 Defense Mechanisms

374D

Critical Thinking Skills Activity 14

14 Critical Thinking Skills Activities

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N GS K I L L S A C T I V I T Y 14 Organizing and

AnalyzingInformation

Directions: Use the information below to conduct a cartoon search to find and categorize examples ofdefense mechanisms.

Sigmund Freud described various ways that the ego seeks to protect itself fromthe demands of the id and superego. He called these protections defense mecha-nisms. Common defense mechanisms include rationalization, repression, denial,projection, reaction formation, regression, displacement, and sublimation. Allhumans use defense mechanisms from time to time, but psychologically healthypeople do not depend on these mechanisms. They find ways to confront and resolveproblems rationally and realistically.

Satirists, humorists, and cartoonists help us see the silly things that people thinkand do. Cartoonists, for instance, often exaggerate a character’s reactions in order toget us to laugh. They commonly show characters using a defense mechanism tohandle a conflict. The cartoon strips seem especially insightful when we can see bitsof ourselves in the characters. This helps us recognize times that we have used a par-ticular defense mechanism to handle a problem confronting us.

1. Obtain the comic strips from local or national newspapers or other sources suchas calendars. You will need at least a week’s worth of papers to get an adequatenumber of samples.

2. Review each day’s comic strips and comics from other sources to identify exam-ples of at least four of the defense mechanisms. Create a clipping file of theseexamples. Include the date and the newspaper’s name on your clippings.

3. Organize the comics in your clipping file by defense mechanism illustrated.During this process, you may find that different characters are using differentdefense mechanisms. Classify the comic with the defense mechanism of themain character.

4. When you find more than one example of a defense mechanism, rank the car-toons from the one that best expresses the defense mechanism to the one thatmakes the weakest connection to the mechanism.

5. Select one of the defense mechanisms and write a report analyzing how cartoon-ists use humor to teach us about ourselves. The samples of the comic stripsshould be included in the report. The report should explore how the cartooncharacter’s use of the defense mechanism is similar to our own. How is it differ-ent? What is the short-term outcome of the defense mechanism? What are likelylong-term outcomes of continued use of the defense mechanism? Analyze oneway that you have learned to confront and resolve problems rationally and real-istically.

Enrichment Activity 14

28 Enrichment Activities

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Only children occupy a unique position within a family. They are like first-born children in that theydo not have to compete with siblings for the parents’ attention (unlike first-borns, they retain this sta-tus), and they are like last-born children in that they never feel the pressure of being thrust out of thelimelight by a younger sibling. As with youngest children, they tend to be spoiled by parents. As a result,only children tend to be self-centered. They also tend to be oriented toward achievement and in generaldo well in the academic arena.

Many conclusions have been drawn about the effects of birth order on personality. Such conclusionsare, at best, very general. A child’s order of birth in a family cannot absolutely predict the child’s person-ality traits. We do know, however, that birth order does affect the personality development of children.We may use this knowledge in a general way, but we should not use it to precisely predict behavioral pat-terns or to try to cure emotional problems on the basis of expected behavioral patterns. At best, knowl-edge of birth order effects enables psychologists to have a greater understanding of personality dynam-ics but should never be used to simply label an individual.

Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided

1. On each of the following scales, select a point that you believe best describes a first-born, second-born, and last-born child based on the reading and your own observations of friends and siblings.

2. What is your birth order position within your family? Do you exhibit any of the traits discussed?What other factors contributed to the development of your personality?

3. Birth order studies show that a disproportionately high number of congressional representatives andUnited States presidents are first-born children. Research the family history of two Presidents andtwo of your state’s senators or representatives to check the accuracy of this information. Report yourfindings in a list.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Independent •———•———•———•———•———•———• Dependent

Competitive •———•———•———•———•———•———• Noncompetitive

High Achiever •———•———•———•———•———•———• Low Achiever

Ambitious •———•———•———•———•———•———• Content

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Enrichment Activities 27

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

There are thousands of studies attempting to find some correlation between birth order—that is, achild’s position in the family with regard to two or more siblings—and personality. All such studies haveserious drawbacks. The most obvious obstacle is the number of variables affecting personality, including:

• age• age spread between children• gender differences• socioeconomic status• racial or ethnic differences• religious differences• adopted versus biological children• marital changes brought on by divorce or death• parental neglect or abuse of children

To date, no coherent research model for birth order has been established. Nevertheless, some gener-al conclusions emerge from the existing studies. The first study by Alfred Adler in 1931 is also one of themost famous. Adler based his theories largely on data drawn from his observations of the behavior of anumber of clients and from their life stories as told to him. Adler maintained that personality differencesamong the oldest, middle, and youngest child in a family could be attributed in part to their belongingto a unique social group based on their order of birth in the family. Subsequent studies argued Adler’sconclusions, but most agree that some general principles regarding birth order and personality do exist.

The first-born child, by virtue of being born first and being the only child for a period of time, has aspecial place in the family. The first-born is more apt to be indulged and protected by the parents, whoare new to parenting. The first-born does not need to compete with siblings for the attention and affec-tion of parents. Because of this favored status, first-born children tend to be high achievers, both aca-demically and socially, and are most likely to pursue leadership positions as adults.

When the second child is born, the first-born loses his or her only-child status and must suddenlyshare parents’ attention with the newborn. This may confuse or even enrage the first-born, and first-born children often become insecure as a result. If parents work to prepare the first-born for the arrivalof the second child, the first-born may show traits of responsibility and protectiveness as a result. Withthe birth of the second child, the first child may develop an exaggerated need to be “first” in all pursuits,which may continue throughout life.

The second-born (or third-born) child, lacking the experience of being the “only one” is, in general,more competitive than the first-born. Middle children are often ambitious as a result of constantly striv-ing to catch up to the older sibling. A middle child may attempt to compete in an area in which the oldersibling has already excelled, and may develop feelings of inferiority when performance levels do notmeasure up. A middle child may also pursue a different avenue; if the older child is an academic achiev-er, the middle child may pursue a career in the arts.

The youngest child, as the “baby of the family,” is often the spoiled child. The older children, as wellas the parents, tend to indulge the youngest child. This may result in a personality trait that is noncom-petitive by nature, as the child will continually seek the approval of others in an attempt to maintainfavored status. Frequently youngest children have the most “power” in a family and are apt to be moremanipulative emotionally, using tears or acting “cute” as a way of getting what they want. Because of thisdependent status as a child, the youngest child may grow into a dependent-personality type as an adult.

Birth Order and Personality

E N R I C H M E N TA C T I V I T Y 14

Directions: Read the following material then answer the questions in the space provided.

(continued)

EXTENSION AND ENRICHMENT

Chapter 14 Test, Form A

Matching: Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in theblanks. Not all items in Column B are used. (5 points each)

Completion: Choose an item from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the letter ofthat item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (5 points each)

A. ego D. self-efficacyB. repression E. displacementC. personal construct F. traits

16. Pushing painful thoughts and memories into the unconscious and “forgetting” them is termed ________________.

17. Behaviors that characterize individuals are called ________________.

18. George Kelly developed the ________________ theory of personality.

19. Albert Bandura refers to our view of our ability to succeed as ________________.

20. The part of the personality that is in touch with reality is called the ________________.

Short Answer: Answer both of the questions below. Use a separate sheet of paper for additional spaceif necessary. (5 points each)

21. Define the term personality and describe the four major purposes of personality theory.

22. Describe behaviorism, its advantages, and why learning theories are criticized.

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Chapter TestForm A 14 Theories of

Personality

Column A

11. Carl Jung

12. Alfred Adler

13. Albert Bandura

14. B.F. Skinner

15. Abraham Maslow

Column B

A. observational learning

B. psychoanalysis

C. self-actualization

D. contingencies of reinforcement

E. collective unconscious

F. inferiority complex

Multiple Choice: Choose the item that best completes each statement or answers each question. Writethe letter of that item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

1. According to Sigmund Freud, the part of the psyche that stops a person from stealing is theA. ego. C. id.B. superego. D. collective unconscious.

2. Thinking that someone is angry at you when in reality you are angry at yourself is calledA. repression. C. projection.B. regression. D. reaction formation.

3. Marty frequently becomes angry at his wife. The real object of his anger is his mother. This defense mechanism is calledA. projection. C. reaction formation.B. displacement. D. repression

4. A three-year-old child who has been toilet trained starts wetting the bed after the birth of a sibling. This child is using the defense mechanism ofA. projection. C. displacement.B. repression. D. regression.

5. Mrs. Smith exhibits strong feelings of love toward her child, although unconsciously she is very angry at the child. She is displaying the defense mechanism ofA. reaction formation. C. displacement.B. repression. D. projection.

6. Carl Jung’s term for the part of the psyche similar to Freud’s “unconscious” isA. id. C. collective unconscious.B. superego. D. personal unconscious.

7. Rewards and punishments are associated withA. psychoanalysis. C. behavioral psychology.B. trait theory. D. humanistic psychology.

8. Abraham Maslow deliberately tried to establish an alternative to psychoanalysis andbehaviorism calledA. behaviorism. C. neo-Freudian approaches.B. trait theory. D. humanistic psychology.

9. Which of the following does not describe the self-actualizing individual?A. spontaneous C. sense of humorB. self-centered D. values privacy

10. ________________ can be described as people who are thoughtful, passive, and quiet.A. Self-actualized individuals C. ExtrovertsB. Archetypes D. Introverts

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SCOREChapter TestForm A 14 Theories of

Personality

(continued)

Chapter 14 Test, Form B

Matching: Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in theblanks. Not all items in Column B are used. (5 points each)

Completion: Choose an item from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the letter ofthat item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (5 points each)

A. behaviorist D. personal constructsB. self-actualization E. contingenciesC. archetypes F. observational

16. Skinner called the occurrence of a reward or punishment following a particular behavior ________________ of reinforcement.

17. Humanistic psychology is founded on the belief that people strive for ________________.

18. George Kelly referred to our mental representations of people, events, and concepts as________________.

19. Albert Bandura contended that personality is acquired, in part, by ________________ learning.

20. Psychologists who adhere to ________________ theory hold that the proper subject matter of psychology is observable behavior.

Short Answer: Answer both of the questions below. Use a separate sheet of paper for additional spaceif necessary. (5 points each)

21. Discuss three of the six major schools of personality theory.

22. Discuss the id, the ego, and the superego.

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Chapter TestForm B 14 Theories of

Personality

Column A

11. trait

12. source trait

13. denial

14. personality

15. extrovert

Column B

A. a characteristic that is at the core of personality

B. refusal to accept the reality of something that makes you anxious

C. excluding a painful memory from conscious awareness

D. consistent, enduring and unique characteristics of a person

E. sociable, outgoing, active

F. tendency to act in a certain way

Multiple Choice: Choose the item that best completes each statement or answers each question. Writethe letter of that item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

1. According to Sigmund Freud, human personality includes all of the following except A. ego. C. id.B. superego. D. collective unconscious.

2. Freud was the first modern psychologist to suggest thatA. radical behaviorism works.B. every personality has a large unconscious component.C. the proper subject matter of psychology is observable behavior.D. all of the above

3. The methods by which the ego unconsciously protects itself against unpleasant circumstances are calledA. projections. C. defense mechanisms.B. contingencies of reinforcement. D. reaction formations.

4. According to Carl Rogers, every person has which two parts?A. organism and selfB. personal construct and collective unconsciousC. self-image and archetypesD. unconscious and self

5. B.F. Skinner’s approach to personality is based onA. cognitive theory. C. humanism.B. psychoanalysis. D. behaviorism.

6. Who of the following did not accept any of Freud’s ideas? A. Abraham Maslow C. Alfred AdlerB. Carl Jung D. Erik Erikson

7. Carl Jung calls themes that reappear in myths and folkloreA. regressions. C. personal unconscious.B. archetypes. D. collective unconscious.

8. Which of the following is NOT part of Raymond Cattell’s personality theory?A. source traits C. personal constructB. surface traits D. factor analysis

9. Which of the following is a term used by Carl Rogers?A. full functioning C. conditions of worthB. unconditional positive regard D. all of the above

10. Which of the following is NOT associated with Hans Eysenck?A. extroversion C. conditions of worthB. introversion D. psychoticism

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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SCOREChapter TestForm B 14 Theories of

Personality

(continued)

ASSESSMENT

Psychology Reading 14

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Readings and Case Studies 67

what Farley considers more risk-averse nations likeJapan. He breaks it down further, into Type T physical(extreme athletes) and Type T intellectual (AlbertEinstein, Galileo). He warns there is also Type T nega-tive, that is, those who are drawn to delinquency,crime, experimentation with drugs, unprotected sexand a whole litany of destructive behaviors.

All these Type T’s are related, and perhaps evendifferent aspects of the same character trait. There is,says Farley, a direct link between Einstein and basejumper Chance McGuire. They are different manifesta-tions of the thrill-seeking component of our characters:Einstein was thrilled by his mental life, and McGuire—well, Chance jumps off buildings . . . .

The question is, How much is enough? Withoutsome expression of risk, we may never know our limitsand therefore who we are as individuals. “If you don’tassume a certain amount of risk,” says paraglider pilotWade Ellet, 51, “you’re missing a certain amount oflife.” And it is by taking risks that we may flirt withgreatness. “We create technologies, we make newdiscoveries, but in order to do that, we have to pushbeyond the set of rules that are governing us at thattime,” says psychologist Farley.

Source: Greenfeld, K.T. (1999, September 6). Life on the edge. Time,29–36.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Understanding the Reading


1. What does the writer claim is our new national behavior?

2. Name three ways in which Americans are expressing this national behavior.

3. What explanations are given for the increased popularity of extreme sports?

4. How have risks been reduced in our everyday lives?

5. How does Frank Farley characterize the Type T personality?

Thinking Critically

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

6. Why do humans take intentional risks when other animals do not?

7. Does Frank Farley’s hypothesis support or undermine the view that the environment is the primarydeterminant of personality characteristics? In what ways?

8. Do you agree with Farley’s view? Defend your position.

66 Readings and Case Studies

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about the market than anyone else,” says PeterBernstein, an economic consultant and author of thebest-selling Against the Gods: The Remarkable Storyof Risk. “It takes a particular kind of environment for allthese things to happen.” That environment—unprece-dented prosperity and almost a decade without amajor ground war—may be what causes Americans toexpress some inveterate need to take risks.

There is a certain logic to it: at the end of adecade of American triumphalism abroad and prosper-ity at home, we could be seeking to upsize our person-alities, our sense of ourselves. Perhaps we as a peopleare acting out our success as a nation, in a mannerunfelt since the postwar era.

The rising popularity of extreme sports bespeaksan eagerness on the part of millions of Americans toparticipate in activities closer to the metaphoricaledge, where danger, skill and fear combine to giveweekend warriors and professional athletes alike asense of pushing out personal boundaries. Accordingto American Sports Data Inc., a consulting firm, partici-pation in so-called extreme sports is way up. Snow-boarding has grown 113% in five years and now boastsnearly 5.5 million participants. Mountain biking, skate-boarding, scuba diving, you name the adventuresport—the growth curves reveal a nation that loves toplay with danger. Contrast that with activities likebaseball, touch football and aerobics, all of which havebeen in steady decline throughout the 90’s.

The pursuits that are becoming more popular haveone thing in common: the perception that they aresomehow more challenging than a game of touch foot-ball. “Every human being with two legs, two arms isgoing to wonder how fast, how strong, how enduringhe or she is,” says Eric Perlman, a mountaineer andfilmmaker specializing in extreme sports. “We aredesigned to experiment or die.”

And to get hurt. More Americans than ever areinjuring themselves while pushing their personal limits.In 1997 the U.S. Consumer Products SafetyCommission reported that 48,000 Americans wereadmitted to hospital emergency rooms with skate-boarding-related injuries. That’s 33% more than theprevious year. Snowboarding E.R. visits were up 31%;mountain climbing up 20%. By every statistical meas-ure available, Americans are participating in and injur-ing themselves through adventure sports at anunprecedented rate.

Consider Mike Carr, an environmental engineerand paraglider pilot from Denver who last year sur-vived a bad landing that smashed 10 ribs and collapsedhis lung. Paraglider pilots use feathery nylon wings totake off from mountaintops and float on thermal windcurrents—a completely unpredictable ride. Carr alsomountain bikes and climbs rock faces. He walkedaway from a 1,500-ft. fall in Peru in 1988. After his

recovery, he returned to paragliding. “This has takenover many of our lives,” he explains. “You float like abird out there. You can go as high as 18,000 ft. and gofor 200 miles. That’s magic.”

America has always been defined by risk; it maybe our predominant national characteristic. It’s a coun-try founded by risk takers fed up with the EnglishCrown and expanded by pioneers—a word that seemsutterly American. Our heritage throws up heroes—Lewis and Clark, Thomas Edison, Frederick Douglass,Teddy Roosevelt, Henry Ford, Amelia Earhart—whobucked the odds, taking perilous chances.

Previous generations didn’t need to seek out risk;it showed up uninvited and regularly: global wars,childbirth complications, diseases and pandemics fromthe flu to polio, dangerous products and even theomnipresent cold war threat of mutually assureddestruction. “I just don’t think extreme sports wouldhave been popular in a ground-war era,” says DanCady, professor of popular culture at California StateUniversity at Fullerton. “Coming back from a war andgetting onto a skateboard would not seem soextreme.”

But for recent generations, many of those tradi-tional risks have been reduced by science, govern-ment or legions of personal injury lawyers, leavingboomers and Generation X and Y to face less real risk.Life expectancy has increased. Violent crime is down.You are 57% less likely to die of heart disease thanyour parents; smallpox, measles and polio have virtual-ly been eradicated.

Combat survivors speak of the terror and theexcitement of playing in a death match. Are we some-how incomplete as people if we do not taste that terrorand excitement on the brink? “People are [taking risks]because everyday risk is minimized and people want tobe challenged,” says Joy Marr, 43, an adventure racerwho was the only woman member of a five-personteam that finished the 1998 Raid Gauloises, the grand-daddy of all adventure races. This is a sport thatrequires several days of nonstop slogging, climbing,rappelling, rafting and surviving through some of theroughest terrain in the world. Says fellow adventureracer and former Army Ranger Jonathon Senk, 35:“Our society is so surgically sterile. It’s almost like oursocialization just desensitizes us. Every time I’m outdoing this I’m searching my soul. It’s the Lewis andClark gene, to venture out, to find what your limitationsare.”…

Psychologist Frank Farley of Temple Universitybelieves that taking conscious risk involves overcom-ing our instincts. He points out that no other animalintentionally puts itself in peril. “The human race isparticularly risk taking compared with other species,”he says. He describes risk takers as the Type T person-ality, and the U.S. as a Type T nation, as opposed to

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

FIVE. . .FOUR . . .THREE. . .TWO. . .ONE. . .SEE YA!”And Chance McGuire, 25, is airborne off a 650-ft. con-crete dam in Northern California. In one second hefalls 16 ft., in two seconds 63 ft., and after three sec-onds and 137 ft. he is flying at 65 m.p.h. He prays thathis parachute will open facing away from the dam, thathis canopy won’t collapse, that his toggles will behandy and that no ill wind will slam him back into thecold concrete. The chute snaps open, the sound rico-cheting through the gorge like a gunshot, and McGuireis soaring, carving S turns into the air, swooping over awinding creek. When he lands, he is a speck on a pathalong the creek. He hurriedly packs his chute and then,clearly audible above the rushing water, lets out a warwhoop that rises past those mortals still perched onthe dam, past the commuters puttering by on the road-way, past even the hawks who circle the ravine. It is acry of defiance, thanks and victory; he has survivedanother BASE jump.

McGuire is a practitioner of what he calls the kingof all extreme sports. BASE—an acronym for building,antenna, span (bridge) and earth (cliffs)—jumping hasone of the sporting world’s highest fatality rates: in its18-year history, 46 participants have been killed. Yetthe sport has never been more popular, with more thana thousand jumpers in the U.S. and more seeking toget into it every day.

It is an activity without margin for error. If yourchute malfunctions, don’t bother reaching for areserve—there isn’t time. There are no secondchances.

Still, the sport’s stark metaphor—a human leavingsafety behind to leap into the void—may be a perfectfit with our times. As extreme a risk taker as McGuireseems, we may all have more in common with himthan we know or care to admit. Heading into the mil-lennium, America has embarked on a national orgy ofthrill seeking and risk taking. The rise of adventure andextreme sports like BASE jumping, snowboarding, iceclimbing, skateboarding and paragliding is merely themost vivid manifestation of this new national behavior.Investors once content to buy stocks and hold themquit their day jobs to become day traders, makingvolatile careers of risk taking. . . . In ways many of ustake for granted, we engage in risks our parents wouldhave shunned and our grandparents would have dis-missed as just plain stupid. . . .

A full 30% of this year’s Harvard Business Schoolgraduates are joining venture-capital or high-techfirms, up from 12% just four years ago. “The extendedperiod of prosperity has encouraged people to behavein ways they didn’t behave in other times—the waypeople spend money, change jobs, the quit rate, daytrading, and people really thinking they know more

R E A D I N G 14Type T Personalities

Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

(continued)

Personality theorists explore how people conducttheir lives. What makes one person willing to risk hisor her life and another person unwilling to leavehome? Researchers try to explain such differencesbetween people. Some psychologists also explorewhether groups of people share common personalitycharacteristics. Psychologist Frank Farley, for example,has proposed that Americans tend to be risk takers,while the Japanese tend to be risk averse. Do environ-mental differences or innate personality traits createsuch differences?

Psychology Case Study 14


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4. Which hypotheses were not supported by the findings of the study?

Thinking Critically


5. Is it important to try to match personality, mental ability, and career path? Why or why not?

6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to job candidates if a company uses personality testresults as hiring or promotion criteria.

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who score high on neuroticism are more likely toexperience a variety of problems, including neg-ative moods, anxiety, fear, depression, irritability,and physical symptoms. Neurotic individuals arelikely to be especially affected by negative lifeevents and to have bad moods linger. These fac-tors carry over into their work environment andaffect both job satisfaction and income/occupa-tional level.

The second hypothesis that extroversion ispositively correlated to intrinsic and extrinsiccareer success was only partially supported.Extroversion was positively correlated to extrin-sic career success, but no correlation was foundbetween extroversion and job satisfaction(intrinsic career success).

Researchers found that conscientiousnessand income/occupational status were positivelycorrelated. In an unhypothesized effect,researchers found that the correlation betweenconscientiousness and job satisfaction was themost consistent result.

The results also support the hypothesis thatthe Big Five traits explained significant incre-mental variance in career success beyond thatexplained by general mental ability.

The study did not support the hypothesisthat personality measures collected in adulthoodwill explain more variance in career success thanwill childhood measures. In fact, the study shows

that most of the Big Five personality factors arerelatively stable over time. Of the five factors, con-scientiousness was the most stable, while agree-ableness was the least stable of the five traits.

Conclusions

Results indicate a correlation between par-ticular career paths and particular traits andbetween personality traits and intrinsic andextrinsic career success. Since the personalitytraits are relatively stable over time, it is possibleto predict career success using childhood per-sonality measures.

In terms of career paths chosen by differentpersonality types, the study showed that extro-verts tended to gravitate toward social jobsand jobs high in interpersonal activities.Conscientious individuals tended to be attractedto investigative jobs and those jobs that requirethinking, organizing, and understanding. Thosewho rated high in general mental ability alsotended to gravitate toward investigative jobs,but they stayed away from conventional, rule-regulated jobs. Study participants who rankedhigh on the neuroticism factor were most likelyto be employed in jobs involving physical activity.

Source: Judge, T.A., & Higgins, C.A. (1999). The big five personalitytraits, general mental ability, and career success across the lifespan. Personnel Psychology, 52 (3), 621–52.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Understanding the Case Study


1. How many participants were enrolled in the study?

2. What two areas of career success were studied?

3. What were the researchers’ hypotheses?


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Introduction

A longitudinal study conducted over 70 yearsexplored the relationship between personalitytraits using the five-factor model of personality(“Big Five”) and general mental ability withcareer success. For the purposes of the study,two aspects of career success were considered:intrinsic success (job satisfaction) and extrinsicsuccess (income and occupational status).

The dimensions of the five-factor modelinclude neuroticism, extroversion, openness toexperience, agreeableness, and conscientious-ness. Neuroticism involves six facets: anxiety,hostility, depression, self-consciousness, vulner-ability, and impulsiveness. Extroversion involvessociability and is related to the experience ofpositive emotions. Conscientiousness includesthree related facets: achievement orientation,dependability, and orderliness. Openness toexperience is characterized by intelligence andunconventionality. Agreeableness is being trust-ing of others and likeable.

Hypothesis

The study explored several hypotheses inmeasuring intrinsic and extrinsic career success.The primary hypotheses are as follows:

■ Neuroticism will be negatively related tointrinsic and extrinsic career success.

■ Extroversion will be positively related tointrinsic and extrinsic career success.

■ Conscientiousness will be positively relatedto extrinsic career success.

■ Personality measures collected in adulthoodwill explain more variance in career successthan will childhood measures.

■ General mental ability will be positivelyrelated to extrinsic career success.

■ Personality will explain incremental variancein career success beyond that explained bygeneral mental ability.

Method

Researchers used the intergenerational stud-ies, a set of three studies that followed partici-pants from early childhood to retirement. TheInstitute of Human Development at theUniversity of California, Berkeley administeredthe studies. The sample was drawn from two ofthe studies. The first enrolled 318 children fromBerkeley who were born between January 1928and July 1929. The second study began in 1931with 212 children seven to nine years old.

The studies continued to gather informationfrom the sample for more than 60 years. Duringtheir childhood, study participants had manymeasurements taken through medical examina-tions, strength tests, and extensive interviews bytrained psychologists. Many of these measure-ments were collected several times throughoutthe person’s childhood.

Researchers conducted three major follow-upstudies when participants were ages 30–38, 41–50, and 53–62. There was also a follow-up mailsurvey completed in 1990 when participantswere 61–70.

The psychologists conducting the study tocompare personality to career success were notthe researchers involved in the intergenerationalstudy. As frequently happens with longitudinalstudies, researchers make the data available toother psychologists for analysis. Since the inter-generational study collected so much informa-tion, the personality researchers could make reli-able and valid analyses based on the data.

Results

Results indicated that neuroticism was sig-nificantly negatively correlated with job satisfac-tion (intrinsic career success), while opennessto experience, conscientiousness, and generalmental ability were significantly positively corre-lated with job satisfaction.

Neuroticism is negatively correlated tointrinsic and extrinsic career success. Individuals

C A S E S T U D Y 14 Can PersonalityTraits Predict Adult

Career Success?

Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

(continued)

374

374

Chapter Overview Visit the Understanding PsychologyWeb site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Chapter Overviewsto preview the chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology JournalThink of a person you have

had a chance to observe in avariety of social settings. Writean entry in your journal de-scribing that person’s way ofinteracting with people. Howdo others respond to this per-son? How does this personinfluence others? How do theyinfluence him or her? ■

IntroductionIntroduction14C H A P T E R

Share the following help-wanted ad with the class: Wanted: Sales Manager.Established self-starter willing to accept responsibility for expanding business. Ability with cre-ative staffing solutions and commitment to highest-quality services highly desired. The ideal can-didate will be a team player with successful sales and interpersonal skills. College degreerequired. Ask: What type of personality traits does this ad request? Why might these traits beuseful for a sales manager? Tell students that they will learn more about personality and traittheories as they study Chapter 14.

TWO-MINUTE LESSON LAUNCHER

PSYCHOLOGY

Visit glencoe.com for a ChapterOverview for Chapter 14—Theories of Personality.

Psychology JournalExplain to students that

humans interact differently withone another in different types ofsocial settings. Encourage stu-dents to note these differencesand the different types ofresponses from others.

This journal activity provides thebasis for the Psychology Journalactivity exercise in the ChapterAssessment. ■

For a preview ofChapter 14 content,see MindJogger

Checkpoint on Presentation Plus!

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

375

Why did Shelly and Deirdre act so differently in similar situa-tions? There is something inside people that makes them think,feel, and act differently, and that something inside is what we

mean by personality. When psychologists talk about aspects of personali-ty, most agree that personality consists of the consistent, enduring, andunique characteristics of a person.

PURPOSES OF THEORIESThe first purpose of personality theories is to provide a way of orga-

nizing the many characteristics you know about yourself and other people. You know people may be outgoing or shy, bossy or meek, quick-tempered or calm, witty or dull, fun-loving or gloomy, industrious or lazy.These words describe general ways of behaving that characterize an indi-vidual. Personality theorists try to determine whether certain traits go

Purposes of PersonalityTheories

personality: the consistent,enduring, and unique character-istics of a person

■ Main IdeaPersonality theories provide a way oforganizing the many characteristics thatpeople have.

■ Vocabulary• personality

■ Objectives• Describe the major purposes of

personality theories.• List the major schools of personality

theory.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

ItÕs in the PersonalityShelly and Deirdre both failed their

semester examinations in psychology, butthey reacted in very different ways. WhenShelly saw her grade, she felt sick to herstomach and had to fight back tears. Sherushed home, and shut herself up in herroom to lie in bed, stare at the ceiling, and feel inadequate. Deirdre, on the other hand, was all bluster. She ran to the cafeteria to join her friends and makeloud jokes about the stupid questions on the test.

—from Understanding Psychology, Richard A.Kasschau, 1995

Chapter 14 / Theories of Personality 375

Reproducible Masters• Guided Reading Activity 14–1• Vocabulary Activity 14–1• Section Quiz 14–1

Transparencies• Daily Focus Transparency 14–1

SECTION RESOURCESMultimedia



CHAPTER 14Section 1, pages 375–377CHAPTER 14

Section 1, pages 375–377

1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Describe the major purposes of

personality theories.2. List the major schools of personal-

ity theory.

Use the Reader’s Guide to introduceconcepts and vocabulary.

■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature. Then discuss:What personality differences areapparent in the way the two teensreacted?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students read the Glossary defi-nition of personality. Write the wordand definition on the board. Then askstudents to describe their own per-sonality by writing at least 20 charac-teristics of themselves that areconsistent and enduring.

Reader’s Guide

Project Daily Focus Trans-parency 14–1 and havestudents answer the ques-tions.

Available as blackline master

Daily Focus Transparency 14–1

B E L L R I N G E RMotivational Activity

2 TEACH

376

together, why a person has some traits and not others, and why a personmight exhibit different traits in different situations. There is a good deal of dis-agreement among theorists as to which traits are significant. Nevertheless, alltheorists look to discover patterns in the ways people behave.

A second purpose of any personality theory is to explain the differ-ences among individuals. In so doing, theorists probe beneath the surface.Some theorists might explain different behaviors in terms of motives.Others might try to find out how motives were established in the firstplace. Still other theorists might seek less obvious causes for individualdifferences, arguing, for example, that the roots of these differences couldbe traced back to childhood conflicts.

A third goal of personality theory is to explain how people conducttheir lives. It is no accident that most personality theorists began as psy-chotherapists. In working with people who had difficulty coping witheveryday problems, psychotherapists inevitably developed ideas aboutwhat it takes to live a relatively happy, untroubled life. Personality theo-rists try to explain why problems arise and why they are more difficult forsome people to manage than for others.

In addition, the fourth purpose of personality theorists is to determinehow life can be improved. It seems obvious that some people are dissat-isfied with themselves, their parents, their husbands, wives, or children, ortheir home lives. People resign themselves to unrewarding jobs, and thereis a widespread feeling that much is wrong with society and the world.Almost everyone recognizes that we need to grow and change, both indi-vidually and collectively. But what are the proper goals of growth andchange? How can we cope with the inevitable conflicts of life?

Psychologists interested in personality attempt to answer these ques-tions with systematic theories about human behavior. These theories areused to guide research. Research, in turn, can test how well a theoryexplains behavior. Thus, formal personality theories are attempts to makeideas about why people act in certain ways more scientific by statingthem precisely and testing them systematically.

MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PERSONALITY THEORY

Psychology is a young discipline, and the development andtesting of personality theories are still gaining sophistication.There are now many conflicting theories of personality, eachwith positive and negative aspects. Discussing both sides of vari-ous theories helps invigorate the discussion about personality.

In this chapter, we will describe major schools of thoughtamong personality theorists. Psychoanalytic theories, devel-oped by Sigmund Freud and his followers, emphasize theimportance of motives hidden in the unconscious. B.F.Skinner and the behaviorists study the way rewards and pun-ishments shape our actions. Social learning theories examinethe impact of observational learning on personality. Cognitive

376 Chapter 14 / Theories of Personality

Reading CheckHow might psychologists

explain differences in personalities?

PersonalityPsychologists who study person-ality explore whatever it is thatmakes one person think, feel, andact differently from another. Whatare the purposes of personality theories?

Figure 14.1

CHAPTER 14Section 1, pages 375–377CHAPTER 14Section 1, pages 375–377

Figure 14.1Caption Answer They organize charac-teristics about people, explain differ-ences, explain how people conducttheir lives, and determine how life canbe improved.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Outlining Locate the heading in your textbook. Then use the information under the headingto help you write each answer.

I. Purposes of Personality Theories

A. Introduction

1. What is the “something” inside people that makes them think, feel, and act differently

from one another? ___________________________________________________________________

B. Purpose of Personality Theories

1. What do all personality theorists look for? ______________________________________________

2. What are three ways that theorists might try to explain the differences among individuals?

Guided ReadingActivity 14-1 Purposes of

Personality TheoriesFor use with textbook pages 375–377

Guided Reading Activity 14–1

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 14-1 Purposes of

Personality Theories

Directions: Fill in each blank below with the word or words that best fit the sentence.

That “something inside” people that makes them think, feel, and act differently is what we mean by

1 . Personality consists of the 2 ,

3 , and 4 characteristics of a person.

The first purpose of 5 is to provide a way of organizing the many

characteristics you know about yourself and other people. A second purpose is to explain the

differences among 6 . A third purpose is to explore how people

7 their lives. A fourth purpose of personality theories is to determine how life

can be 8 .

i i h f ll i i i h id d

Vocabulary Activity 14–1

Reading Check Answerin terms of motives or how

experiences shape personality

Researching Historical Figures Read aloud the following quote of Henry DavidThoreau: If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears adifferent drummer. Let him step to the music which he hears, however measured or far away. As a class, discuss Thoreau’s meaning. Ask: About what type of person was Thoreau writing?How might a team player view such a person? Organize students into small groups to identifyand research historical figures that “marched to the beat of a different drummer.” Have thegroups prepare an oral presentation about the personality of the chosen figure. BLOCKSCHEDULING

COOPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITY

3 ASSESSAssign Section 1 Assessment ashomework or as an in-class activity.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 14-1

Purposes ofPersonalityTheories

Column A

1. studied the way rewards and punishments shape our actions

2. examined the impact of observational learning on personality

3. stressed human growth potential

4. emphasized the importance of unconscious motivations

5. emphasized the importance of understanding personalitycharacteristics

Column B

A. Sigmund Freud

B. Abraham Maslow

C. Gordon Allport

D. B.F. Skinner

E. social learning theorists

Matching

Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks.(10 points each)

Multiple Choice

Ch th it th t b t l t h t t t h ti W it th l tt f th t

Section Quiz 14–1

377

theorists focus on how our thoughts, perceptions, and feelings shape ourpersonalities. Humanistic theorists, like Abraham Maslow and CarlRogers, stress one’s potential for growth, such as creativity and spontane-ity. Finally, trait theorists, like Gordon Allport and Hans Eysenck, empha-size the importance of understanding basic personality characteristics suchas friendliness and aggression.

Each of the theories we will discuss has a different image of humannature. What they have in common is a concern with understanding thedifferences among people.


1. Review the Vocabulary Write yourown definition of personality. How doesyour definition compare to the text-book’s definition?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Use a graphicorganizer similar to the one below tolist the purposes of personality theories.

3. Recall Information What are themajor schools of personality, and howdo they differ?

4. Think Critically Do you think that youchoose your own behaviors freely, ordo you believe that your current be-haviors are determined by previousbehaviors and events? Explain.

Assessment

5. Application Activity Work with a small groupof students and take turns recalling some earlymemories. Jot down those memories, and discussthe following question: Do these early memoriesrelate to your present personality?

Characteristics of PersonalityFigure 14.2

In psychology, personality refers to the essential characteristics of aperson. Cathy Guisewite, a cartoonist, has given personality charac-teristics to an animal—a dog. What factors do you think are influ-encing the personality of the dog in this cartoon?

Purposes ofPersonality

Theories



Figure 14.2Caption Answer Possible answers:desperation, her environment, and herdesire to have a home

ReteachWrite a list of common personalitycharacteristics on the board. Ask stu-dents to fill in the opposite character-istic.

EnrichHave students list personality charac-teristics they believe are important toliving a happy life.

4 CLOSEMake a chart listing the major per-sonality theories. Have studentsmake columns listing the major psy-chologist(s) associated with the the-ory and the basic tenets of thetheory.

1. Answers will vary. Personality describes the consistent,enduring, and unique characteristics of a person.

2. The purposes are to organize the characteristics thatdescribe people, to explain the differences among indi-viduals, to explain how people conduct their lives, andto determine how life can be improved.

3. psychoanalytic (emphasizes hidden motives), behavioral(examines how rewards and punishments shape person-ality), social learning (examines the impact of observa-

tional learning on personality), cognitive (focuses onhow our thoughts, perceptions, and feelings shape ourpersonalities), humanistic (stresses one’s human poten-tial), and trait (emphasizes the importance of under-standing basic personality characteristics)

4. Students’ answers will vary. Encourage students to pro-vide specific examples to support their positions.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Tell students that they donot need to share memories that are painful or private.

S E C T I O N 1 Assessment Answers

378

Slips in speaking are common. People usually laugh at them, even ifthey are meaningful; sometimes, however, they are disturbing.Everyone has made a remark that hurt a friend and has later asked

himself, “Why did I say that? I didn’t mean it.” Yet, when he thinks about it, he may realize that he was angry at his friend andwanted to get back at him.

SIGMUND FREUD AND THE UNCONSCIOUSIt was Sigmund Freud who first suggested that the little slips that peo-

ple make, the things they mishear, and the odd misunderstandings theyhave are not really mistakes at all. Freud believed there was something

Psychoanalytic Theories

■ Main IdeaFreud’s psychoanalytic theory proposesthat personality is made up of threecomponents: the id, ego, and superego.

■ Vocabulary• unconscious• id• ego• superego• defense mechanisms• collective unconscious• archetype• inferiority complex

■ Objectives• Explain Sigmund Freud’s structural

concepts of personality.• Describe Carl Jung’s theory of

personality.


Just a SlipOne of my colleagues was lecturing

on the importance of regular health care.She said, “It is important to visit a veteri-narian for regular checkups.” According toFreud, mistakes like substituting veterina-rian for physician are not accidental butrather “intentional” ways of expressingunconscious desires.

As it turns out, my colleague, who isin very good health, was having seriousdoubts about her relationship with a per-son who happened to be a veterinarian.

—from Introduction to Psychology by RodPlotnik, 2005



1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Explain Sigmund Freud’s structural

concepts of personality.2. Describe Carl Jung’s theory of

personality.


■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature. Then ask: Do youagree that all “Freudian slips” areexpressions of unconscious desires?Why or why not?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students read the Glossary defi-nitions of the vocabulary terms. Askthem to create a word search puzzleusing all the terms. They should pro-vide clues to the terms using the defi-nitions of the terms. Have studentstrade their puzzles with each other tocomplete.

Use the Vocabulary PuzzleMakerCD-ROM to create crossword andword search puzzles.

Reader’s Guide

Project Daily Focus Transparency 14–2 andhave students answer thequestions.







Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM



379

behind these mistakes, even though people claimed they were just acci-dental and quickly corrected themselves. Similarly, when he listened topeople describe their dreams, he believed the dreams had some uncon-scious meaning, even though the people who dreamed them did notknow what they meant.

Freud was a neurologist who practiced in Vienna in the late 1800sand early 1900s. Although he specialized in nervous disorders, many peo-ple talked to him about their private lives, conflicts, fears, and desires. Heconcluded that the most powerful influences on human personality arethings outside our conscious awareness with no physiological basis.

Freud was the first modern psychologist to suggest that every per-sonality has a large unconscious, or unaware, component. For Freud,experiences include feelings and thoughts as well as actual events. Freudbelieved that many of our experiences, particularly the painful episodes ofchildhood, are not forgotten but are stored in the unconscious. Althoughwe may not consciously recall these experiences, they continue to influ-ence our behavior. Freud believed that unconscious motives and the feel-ings people experience as children have an enormous impact on adultpersonality and behavior. Between the unconscious and the conscious isthe preconscious—thoughts that can be recalled with relatively little effort. These thoughts consist of information just below the surface ofawareness. Preconscious thoughts may include memories of recentevents, recollections of friends, and simple facts—anything we can recall.

THE ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGOFreud explained human personality by saying that it was a kind of

energy system, like a steam engine or an electric dynamo. The energy inpersonality comes from two kinds of powerful instincts—the life instinctsand the death instincts. Freud theorized that all of life moves towarddeath and that the desire for a final end shows up in human personalityas destructiveness and aggression. It is important to remember, however,that life instincts were more important in Freud’s theory and he saw themprimarily as erotic or pleasure-seeking urges. By 1923, Freud haddescribed what became known as thestructural concepts of the personality: id,ego, and superego (see Figure 14.3). Freudintroduced them as a model of how themind works. In other words, the id, ego,and superego are not actual parts of thebrain; instead, they explain how the mindfunctions and how the instinctual energiesare organized and regulated.

In Freud’s theory, the id is the reservoiror container of the instinctual and biologicalurges. At birth, all your energy is invested inthe id, responding unconsciously to inborninstinctive urges for food and water. The id

unconscious: the part of the mind that contains materialof which we are unaware butthat strongly influences con-scious processes and behaviors


PSYCHOLOGY

Student Web Activity Visit the UnderstandingPsychology Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—StudentWeb Activities for an activity on theories of personality.

id: the part of the unconsciouspersonality that contains ourneeds, drives, instincts, andrepressed material

Freud’s ModelFigure 14.3

The ego tries to balancethe demands of the id andthe superego and the reali-ties of the world. Theseinteractions and conflictsare represented by arrowsin the figure. Which ofthese components is thesource of guilt feelings?

UNCONSCIOUS

CONSCIOUSEgo

Super-ego

Id

PRECONSCIOUS

2 TEACHL1 Creative Writing Propose adecision-making scenario, such asthe following, to the class:

You are on an overnight hike with agroup of friends when a rainstormsuddenly hits. Everyone’s food isdestroyed in the downpour except onefriend who wrapped her food in a plas-tic stuff sack. As night arrives, youare very hungry. You notice that yourfriend has wandered away from herbackpack. Part of you wants to stealher food—you need it to have energyto finish the hike. Another part of yousays the action is morally wrong.What will you do?

Challenge students to prepare athree-part dialogue in which the id,ego, and superego argue and resolvethis moral dilemma. Request volun-teers to read their dialogues to theclass.



PSYCHOLOGY

Links and instructional guidelinescan be found in the Web ActivityLesson Plan at glencoe.com.

Figure 14.3Visual Instruction Make sure that stu-dents understand that Freud did notview the id, ego, and superego asseparate entities or physical divisionsof the brain. Instead, Freud usedthese as labels for strong psychologi-cal forces or motivations.

Caption Answer the superego

Writing and Performing a Skit Organize the class into groups of three or four. Assigneach group one of the defensive mechanisms described in the text. Direct the groups to write askit illustrating the defense mechanism in action. Ask each group to present its skit to the class.After students present their skits, have other groups discuss the positive and negative effects ofthe defense mechanism on the characters involved. BLOCK SCHEDULING


http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

380

defense mechanisms: cer-tain specific means by whichthe ego unconsciously protectsitself against unpleasantimpulses or circumstances

ego: the part of the personalitythat is in touch with reality andstrives to meet the demands ofthe id and the superego insocially acceptable ways

superego: the part of the per-sonality that is the source ofconscience and counteracts thesocially undesirable impulses of the id

is the lustful, impulsive, fun, or drive-ridden part of the unconscious. Thedemand of Sesame Street’s Cookie Monster—“Me want cookie!”—ispure id. It operates in terms of what Freud called the pleasure principle,seeking immediate gratification of desires, regardless of the consequences.Doing something that may hurt someone’s feelings, lying, and having funare examples of the id’s influence.

The personality process that is mostly conscious is called the ego.Gradually forming during the second and third years of life and drivenby psychic energy borrowed from the id, the ego is the rational,thoughtful personality process that operates in terms of Freud’s realityprinciple. If, for example, a person is hungry, the id might drive her toseek immediate satisfaction by dreaming of food or by eating all theavailable food at once instead of keeping some of it for later. The egowould recognize that the body needs real food and that it will continueto need food. It would use the id’s energy to urge preserving some ofthe food available now and looking for ways of finding more.

Suppose you thought of stealing the desired food from someoneelse. The superego, which represents the learning and incorporation ofyour primary caretaker’s ideals, is the part of the personality that wouldstop you. The id represents what the person wants to do, the ego planswhat she can do, and the superego advocates what she should do. It isthe moral part of the personality, the source of conscience and of highideals that can be said to operate in terms of a moral principle. The super-ego can also create conflicts and problems. It is sometimes overly harsh,like a very strict parent. Hence, it is the source of guilt feelings, whichcome from deviations from what it defines as right—better known asthe conscience, or internalized values of the parents.

The id and the superego frequently come into conflict with each other.Because neither is concerned with reality, they may both come into con-flict with the outside world as well. Freud saw the ego as the part of theperson that must satisfy the demands of the id without offending thesuperego. If the id is not satisfied, the person feels an intolerable tension oflonging or anger or desire. If the superego is not obeyed, the person feelsguilty and inferior. If outside reality is ignored, the person suffers such out-comes as starvation or dislike by other people.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS The ego’s job is so difficult that all people unconsciously resort to psy-

chological defenses. Rather than face intense frustration, conflict, or feel-ings of unworthiness, people deceive themselves into believing nothing iswrong. If the demands of the id and the ego cannot be resolved, it may benecessary to distort reality. Freud called these techniques defensemechanisms because they defend the ego from experiencing anxietyabout failing in its tasks (see Figure 14.5). Freud believed that these defensemechanisms stem from the unconscious part of the ego. They ordinarilybecome conscious to the individual only during a form of psychotherapycalled psychoanalysis—and then only with great difficulty.



Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Guided ReadingActivity 14-2 Psychoanalytic

Theories

Directions: Recalling the Facts Use the information in your textbook to answer the questions.

1. What did Sigmund Freud believe happens to our memories of past experiences, especially painful

ones? _____________________________________________________________________________________

2. How does the id show itself in infants? _______________________________________________________

3. Which part of personality is your conscience? _________________________________________________

4. Which part of personality serves to temper the other two parts? _________________________________

5. Are defense mechanisms good or bad? Explain. _______________________________________________

6. What happens to repressed feelings? _________________________________________________________

For use with textbook pages 378–386

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Guided ReadingActivity


Review Freud’s theory of thestages of personality develop-ment discussed in Chapter 3.Consider assigning a student toprepare a mock news “recap,”similar to those used in sportsreporting.

Learning Style: Logical/Mathematical Tell students that the traditional view of onlychildren has been that they are spoiled and self-centered. This view held that only children didnot relate well in social situations and were overly dependent on their parents. Although morerecent studies contradict this view, society still largely accepts the notion that only children arespoiled and selfish. Challenge students to use Freud’s personality parts (id, ego, and superego)to explain the traditional view of only children. For example, ask students to describe the domi-nant personality part in only children. L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING

MEETING SPECIAL NEEDS

History Explain that the study ofhistory includes a subfield knownas psychohistory. Psychohistorystudies historical motivationusing the insights of modern psychotherapy and the researchmethodology of history. Psycho-history strives to understand theorigin of social and politicalbehavior in individuals andamong nations. One area ofresearch applies personality theo-ries to major figures from thepast. Among those who havebeen studied are Napoleon Bona-parte, Adolf Hitler, and RichardNixon.

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To some degree, defense mechanisms are necessary for psychologicalwell-being. They relieve intolerable confusion and stress, help people weath-er intense emotional crises, and give individuals time to work out problemsthey might not be able to solve if they allowed themselves to feel all the pres-sures at work within them. However, if a person resorts to defense mecha-nisms all of the time, he will avoid facing and solving his problems realisti-cally. A few of the defense mechanisms Freud identified are discussed below.

RationalizationIf you explained your poor performance on your last math test by

saying, “The test questions were bad; they didn’t make sense,” rather thanadmitting that you did not study for the test, you practiced rationalization.Rationalization involves making up acceptable excuses for behaviors thatcause us to feel anxious.

RepressionWhen a person has painful memories and unacceptable thoughts and

motives that cause the ego too much anxiety, she may push those thoughtsor urges out of consciousness down into the unconscious. This process iscalled repression. The person simply pushes the disturbing thoughts andmemories out of awareness without ever realizing it. For example, a grownwoman whose father is meddling in her life may havethe impulse to say, “I hate you, Dad.” The womanmay feel so anxious and afraid about having such animpulse that she unconsciously will come to believethat what she feels is not hatred. She replaces the feel-ing with apathy. She says, “I don’t hate you. I have nospecial feelings at all about you.” Nevertheless, thefeelings of anger and hostility remain in the uncon-scious and may show themselves in cutting remarks,sarcastic jokes, slips of the tongue, or dreams.

DenialYou are in denial if you refuse to accept the real-

ity of something that makes you anxious. For exam-ple, it is a stormy and frightening night, and thelocal television and radio announcers are advisingcitizens to take cover and observe the tornadowarnings in effect. David does not believe that histown will get hit (he is in denial) and is severelyinjured after failing to heed the warnings.

ProjectionAnother way the ego avoids anxiety is to believe

that impulses coming from within are really comingfrom other people. For example, a boy who isextremely jealous of his girlfriend but does not


Freudian SlipFreudian slips are mistakes or slips of thetongue that we make in everyday speech.Freud believed that these slips reflect ourunconscious thoughts or wishes. What is theFreudian slip that this turkey makes?

Figure 14.4

Reading CheckAccording to Freud, why

do people create defensemechanisms?



Freud lived and worked during the Victorian era. The era is named forGreat Britain’s Queen Victoria, whoruled from 1837 to 1901. During herreign, Great Britain developed a world-wide empire. Her reign also saw ashift in values, with emphasis placedon proper dress and behavior. Male-female interactions became ritualized.Public displays of affection werehighly frowned on; sex was never dis-cussed openly. Freud’s theoriessharply contrasted with the mores ofthe time. He identified societal valuesas the reason why people repressedtheir feelings, especially concerningsexual desires.

Figure 14.4Caption Answer The speaker inadver-tently uses the phrase “heavy turnout,”a slip of the tongue that could betaken as an (unintended) insult by theaudience of obese people.

Psychology JournalAssign students to write about

an example from their own experiencesin which they have used one of thedefense mechanisms. Also ask themto write about the consequences ofusing the defense mechanism. ■

Analyzing Information Assign students to keep a private log of conflicts they encountereach day. Emphasize that the diaries will not be collected. At the end of the day, students shouldpretend they are Freudian psychologists. After each entry in the log, they should analyze whichFreudian principle was most operative in resolving the conflict. Was it (1) interaction between theid and superego, or (2) a defense mechanism? If a defense mechanism was used, studentsshould attempt to name it. At the end of the week, tell students to prepare a list of the methodsof conflict resolution used during the week. L2

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Reading Check Answerto defend their ego from expe-

riencing anxiety attacks about theirfailures; to avoid facing intense frustration, conflict, or feelings ofunworthiness

382

want to admit to himself that he is threatened by her independence mayclaim, “I’m not jealous—she’s the one who’s always asking where I’vebeen, who that girl was I was talking to. She’s the one who’s jealous.” Thismechanism is called projection because inner feelings are thrown, or pro-jected, outside the self and assigned to others. If a person thinks, forexample, that others dislike him when in reality he dislikes himself, he issaid to be projecting. This is a common mechanism, which you may haveused yourself from time to time.

Reaction FormationReaction formation involves replacing an unacceptable feeling or urge

with an opposite one. For example, a divorced father may resent havinghis child for the weekend. Unconsciously, he believes it is terribly wrongfor a father to react that way, so he showers the child with expressions oflove, toys, and exciting trips. A woman who finds her powerful ambitionsunacceptable may play the role of a weak, helpless, passive female who


Defense MechanismsFigure 14.5

Projection refers to a person seeing attributes of his own personality inothers. Repression is shown by a woman who is not only restraining a

monstrous impulse but alsotrying to conceal from her-self that she is doing so.The displacement of awidow’s love for her losthusband onto her pets isanother defense mecha-nism. In what ways aredefense mechanismshelpful?

Projection: a person believes that impulses really coming from within himself are coming from other people. (He is jealous of his girlfriendbut claims that she’s the one who is jealous.)

Displacement: a widow transfers herlove for her late husband to her cats.

Repression: a person pushes painful memories or anxiety out of her consciousness; a person denies or forgets what is disturbing her.


Figure 14.5Visual Instruction Introduce thedefense mechanism of sublimation(redirecting a forbidden or sociallyunacceptable desire into a sociallyacceptable desire). Ask students toexplain how this term fits the defini-tion of a defense mechanism? (anego defense against unacceptablebehavior)

Caption Answer They relieve confu-sion, help individuals get throughemotional troubles, and provide timeto resolve problems.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 14-2 Psychoanalytic

Theories

Directions: Write the letter of the response that best fits the description in the blank to the left of eachsentence.

1. The ego unconsciously protects itself against unpleasant impulses or circumstancesusingA. the superego. C. archetypes.B. defense mechanisms. D. the collective unconscious.

2. The part of the mind that contains material of which we are unaware but that stronglyinfluences how we behave is the A. archetype. C. superego.B. ego. D. unconscious.

3. Carl Jung’s concept of inherited, universal ideas is known as a(n)A. archetype. C. id.B. collective unconscious. D. ego.

4. A person’s instinctual and biological urges are theA. ego. C. superego.B. id. D. archetype.

5. A person who continually battles feelings of inadequacy suffers from a(n)


Narcissism Many psychiatristsbelieve that the root cause ofmany personality disorders is nar-cissism. Although all personalitydisorders are not mental illnesses,they can be greatly disabling. It isestimated that 60 to 70 percent ofall prison inmates have some formof personality disorder. Freud didnot think that psychoanalysis couldeffectively treat people with narcis-sistic personality disorders. How-ever, modern psychoanalysts,beginning with Hyman Spotnitz inthe 1940s, have found effectiveways to transfer the narcissistictendencies and treat patients successfully.

PsychologyUpdate

Causes of Sibling Rivalry Have students work in small groups to designand conduct a survey about causes and solutions for sibling rivalry. Tell students that their par-ticipants should be eight to ten years old. Have students design a short survey to discover thefrequency and length of disagreements among siblings, the reasons for the disagreements, andthe ways disagreements are resolved. Each group will administer the survey to at least 10 chil-dren. Ask the groups to analyze the results and present their findings using graphs. The groupsshould then compare and compile final graphs. As a class, discuss the results in terms ofFreud’s personality theory and ideas on conflict resolution. L2

PSYCHOLOGY LAB EXPERIMENT

383

wants nothing more than to please the men in her life—unconsciouslycovering up her true feelings. Have you ever put on a front and actedstrong and confident when you were really scared?

RegressionRegression means going back to an earlier and less mature pattern of

behavior. When a person is under severe pressure, he may start acting inways that helped him in the past. For example, he may throw a tempertantrum, make faces, cry loudly, or revert to eating and sleeping all the timethe way he did as a small child. If you have ever been tempted to stick outyour lower lip and pout when you know that you should really accept thatyou cannot have your own way, you have experienced regression.

DisplacementDisplacement occurs when you cannot take out your anger on the

source of your frustrations, so you displace it or take it out on a less pow-erful person. For example, if you wanted to hit your father but were afraidto, you might hit your little brother instead. Your poor brother getsslapped around partly because he reminds you of yourfather and partly because he is not as likely to hit back.

SublimationSublimation refers to redirecting a forbidden desire

into a socially acceptable desire. For example, you maybe so frustrated by your friend’s arrogant attitude thatyou work extra hard at soccer practice, pushing your-self to your physical limits. You have channeled youraggressive feelings into physical activities.

EVALUATING FREUDÕS CONTRIBUTIONThe recognition of the tremendous forces that exist

in human personality and the difficulty of controllingand handling them were Freud’s great contributions tounderstanding human life. After Freud, it became easierto understand why human life contains so much con-flict. It is a matter, Freud thought, of a savage individ-ual coming to terms with the rules of society. The id isthe savage part, and the superego is the representativeof society. In a healthy person, the ego (the “I”) isstrong enough to handle the struggle (Hall, 1954).

Freud was also the first psychologist to claim thatinfancy and childhood are critical times for forming aperson’s basic character structure. In his theory of psy-chosexual development, Freud reasoned that a childgoes through five stages of development—oral, anal,phallic, latency, and genital. Conflicts arise in each of


Birth OrderAre you either the oldest child in the family

or the youngest? Does this affect your per-sonality? Frank Sulloway (1996) studiedbirth-order effects on personalities, comingup with the following characteristics:

• Firstborns are interested in preserving thestatus quo; later-borns are more open tonew experiences and ideas.

• Firstborns are usually more responsible,achievement-oriented, and organized thanthose born later.

• Later-borns are usually more agreeablethan firstborns.

• Firstborns are more jealous and fearfulthan later-borns.

• Firstborns have more assertive and domi-nant personalities but may not be as socia-ble as later-borns.

It is important to note that Sulloway’sresearch focused on middle- to upper-classpeople in Western cultures and thereforemay not apply to other cultures. Sulloway’sresearch also is generalized, meaning it maynot apply to every individual or every family.

L1 Developing VocabularyAs you are discussing defense mech-anisms, have students give workingdefinitions for the following terms–id,ego, and superego. Have the stu-dents apply these terms to each ofFreud’s defense mechanisms. Askstudents to explain how the interac-tions and conflicts among the id, ego,and superego generate each type ofdefense mechanism.Ask: How do defense mechanismshelp people? (They relieve psychologi-cal confusion and stress, allowingpeople to cope with life). What aresome negative aspects of defensemechanisms? (They are distortions ofreality; the underlying problem mayremain unresolved) ELL



The Media Review the Cookie Monster’s id behavior with the class. Then assign students toview several episodes of Sesame Street or one of the Sesame Street movies. Ask: What exam-ples of the pleasure principle, reality principle, and moral principle can you identify in the pup-pets’ personalities? (Sometimes the Cookie Monster’s superego kicks in; for example, with thewords “Me sorry.”) Ask volunteers to write and perform a puppet show giving their puppetsunique personalities. If students think puppet shows are silly, remind them that child psycholo-gists often use puppets to help children express their feelings. L2

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITY

The Arts The modern word per-sonality comes from the Latinterm personare. The expressionmeant literally to “speak through”and referred to masks thatancient actors held in front oftheir faces during plays. By thetime of the Renaissance, theword had evolved into personalityand referred to the person behindthe mask—the actor.

384

the stages. Freud claimed that a child’s personality largely developed inthe first five years, during which the child went through the first threestages of development. That child’s personality became the result of howthe child dealt with the conflicts that arose in each stage of development.Freud believed that personality was well formed by the time the childentered school and that subsequent growth consisted of elaborating thisbasic structure. Freud was the first person to demonstrate how the per-sonality develops in a person. (Review Chapter 3 for a more detailed dis-cussion of Freud’s stages of development.)

Freud was also the first person to propose a unified theory to under-stand and explain human behavior. No other theory has been more complete, complex, or controversial. Some psychologists treat Freud’swritings as a sacred text. At the other extreme, many have accused Freudof being unscientific by proposing a theory too complex to be tested. Freud’s theories continue to be debated. Although not widely prac-ticed now, psychoanalysis was the predecessor of all later personality the-ories, which were either extensions of Freud’s work or reactions against it.

IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS Freud’s revolutionary ideas attracted many followers who ultimately

disagreed with him, and a number of these psychoanalysts developedimportant theories of their own.

Carl JungAt one time, Carl Jung (1875–1961) was Freud’s closest associate.

When Freud and Jung started to argue about psychoanalytic theory,though, their personal relationship became strained. They stopped speak-ing to each other entirely a mere seven years after they met.

Jung disagreed with Freud on two major points. First, he took a morepositive view of human nature, believing that people try to develop theirpotential as well as handle their instinctual urges. Second, he distinguishedbetween the personal unconscious, which was similar to Freud’s idea ofthe unconscious, and the collective unconscious, which is a storehouseof instincts, urges, and memories of the entire human species throughouthistory. He called these inherited, universal ideas archetypes. The same

archetypes are present in every person. Theyreflect the common experiences of humanityregarding mothers, fathers, nature, war, and so on(see Figure 14.7).

Jung went on to identify the archetypes bystudying dreams and visions, paintings, poetry, folkstories, myths, and religions. He found that the samethemes—the archetypes—appear again and again.He found that many cultures share certain myths,dreams, religious beliefs, and symbols separated bytime. For example, the story of Jack and theBeanstalk is essentially the same as the story of


collective unconscious:the part of the mind that con-tains inherited instincts, urges,and memories common to allpeople

Carl JungFigure 14.6

Carl G. Jung was oneof the most mysticaland metaphysical of thepioneer theorists. Whatis the collective unconscious?

archetype: an inherited idea,based on the experiences ofone’s ancestors, which shapesone’s perception of the world


Figure 14.6Caption Answer It is the part of themind that contains inherited instincts,urges, and memories common to allpeople.

Criticism of Psychoanalysis Tell students that the practice of psychoanalysis, a type oftherapy based on Freud’s ideas, is on the decline in the United States. It has faced at least threecriticisms. First, some claim that psychoanalysis does not help people, the patients being no bet-ter off after psychoanalysis than before. Many psychologists and psychiatrists disagree with thiscriticism. The second criticism is that interpretations by psychoanalysts cannot be disproved. Inpurely scientific terms, this criticism is generally true. The third is an economic criticism.Because psychoanalysis takes so much time, it is very costly. This means it is a treatmentmethod unavailable to most people.

EXTENDING THE CONTENT

Basic Anxiety and Hostility KarenHorney wrote the following in TheNeurotic Personality in Our Time(1937): “The typical conflict lead-ing to anxiety in a child is thatbetween dependency on the par-ents . . . and hostile impulsesagainst the parents. Hostility maybe aroused in a child in manyways: by the parents’ lack ofrespect for him; by unreasonabledemands and prohibitions, by injus-tice; by unreliability; by suppres-sion of criticism; by the parentsdominating him and ascribingthese tendencies to love. . . . If achild, in addition to being depen-dent on his parents, is grossly orsubtly intimidated by them andhence feels that any expression ofhostile impulses against themendangers his security, then theexistence of such hostile impulsesis bound to create anxiety. . . . Theresulting picture may look exactlylike what Freud describes as theOedipus complex: passionate cling-ing to one parent and jealousytoward the other or toward anyoneinterfering with the claim of exclu-sive possession. . . . But thedynamic structure of these attach-ments is entirely different fromwhat Freud conceives as the Oedi-pus complex. They are an earlymanifestation of neurotic [anxiety-based] conflicts rather than a pri-marily sexual phenomenon.” Ask:According to Horney, how is Freudwrong? (Whereas Freud considersconflict in childhood as arisingfrom purely sexual motives, Horneysees the conflict as based on thechild’s anxiety about being depen-dent on the parents.)

@Looking the Issues

385

David and Goliath. Both tell how a small, weak, good persontriumphs over a big, strong, bad person. Jung believed such sto-ries are common and easy to understand because the situationsthey describe have occurred over and over again in human his-tory and have been stored as archetypes in the unconscious ofevery human being (Jung, 1963). Jung argued that these arche-types influence our thoughts and feelings and help us build thefoundation of our personalities. For example, one archetype isour sense of self. Our sense of self gives us direction and pro-vides a sense of completeness. We use the concepts in our per-sonal unconscious and collective unconscious to develop ourpersonalities. We fit our personalities to these concepts. In theprocess of fitting our personalities to these beliefs, we may hideour real feelings and our real personalities, though.

Alfred AdlerLike Jung, Alfred Adler (1870–1937) was an associate of

Freud who left his teacher in the early part of the twentiethcentury to develop his own approach to personality theory.Adler believed that the driving force in people’s lives is a desireto overcome their feelings of inferiority. Classic examples areDemosthenes, who overcame a speech impediment by prac-ticing speaking with pebbles in his mouth and became thegreatest orator of ancient Greece; Napoleon, a short man whoconquered Europe in the early 1800s; and Glenn Cunningham,an Olympic runner who, as a child, lost his toes in a fire andhad to plead with doctors who wanted to amputate his legsbecause they thought he would never be able to use them again.

Everyone struggles with inferiority, said Adler. He describes a personwho continually tries to compensate for his weakness and avoid feelingsof inadequacy as having an inferiority complex. Children first feelinferior because they are so little and so dependent on adults. Graduallythey learn to do the things that older people can do. The satisfaction thatcomes from such simple acts as walking or learning to use a spoon setsup a pattern of overcoming inadequacies, a pattern that persists through-out life. Adler called these patterns lifestyles.

Adler believed that the way parents treat their children influences thestyles of life they choose. Overpampering, in which the parents attempt tosatisfy the child’s every whim, tends to produce a self-centered person whohas little regard for others and who expects everyone else to do what he orshe wants. On the other hand, the child who is neglected by his or her par-ents may seek revenge by becoming an angry, hostile person. Both thepampered and the neglected child tend to grow into adults who lack con-fidence in their ability to meet the demands of life. Ideally, said Adler, achild should learn self-reliance and courage from the father and generosityand a feeling for others from the mother (Adler, 1959). Adler believed thatall humans are motivated by social urges and that each person is a socialbeing with a unique personality.


inferiority complex: a pat-tern of avoiding feelings ofinadequacy rather than trying toovercome their source

Archetypes

According to Jung’s theory,Superman can be considered an archetype of a hero and ofgoodness. What are archetypes?

Figure 14.7



Freud considered the concept ofrepression as the cornerstone ofhis whole system. Explain to stu-dents that to unlock repression,a psychoanalyst “shrinks” apatient back to childhood. Thenickname “shrink,” for psychia-trists and psychologists, isderived from this process. Askwhat stereotyped views of thera-pists are created by the nick-name.


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 14-2 Psychoanalytic

Theories

Column A

1. pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than tryingto overcome their source

2. means by which the ego unconsciously protects itself againstunpleasant impulses or circumstances

3. exclusion from conscious awareness of painful, unpleasant,or undesirable memories

4. part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs,drives and instincts

5 part of the personality that strives to meet the demands of

Column B

A. id

B. inferiority complex

C. ego

D. repression

E. defense mechanisms

Matching


Section Quiz 14–2

Psychologists at Work The human personality has always intrigued philosophers and lay-persons. Pseudosciences such as astrology, physiognomy, and Galen’s humoral theory of tem-perament are all early examples of efforts to explain human behavior. In the post-Freudian era,psychologists have applied the tools of science to generate new, more complicated theories ofpersonality. Today, personality psychologists present survey data to support their views. Theyalso formulate and/or use tests as methods of measurement (see Chapter 13). Trainingincludes advanced work in psychological theory, as well as courses in statistics and evaluativetesting.

EXTENDING THE CONTENT

Figure 14.7Caption Answer Jung’s term for inher-ited, universal ideas that shape ourperceptions

386


Other TheoristsAlthough Jung and

Adler were the first figuresto break with Freud, manyothers have followed. ErichFromm’s (1900–1980) the-ory centered around theneed to belong and theloneliness that freedom can bring. Karen Horney(1885–1952) stressed theimportance of basic anxi-ety, which a child feelsbecause she is helpless, andbasic hostility, a resent-ment of one’s parents thatgenerally accompanies thisanxiety. She also disagreedwith Freud on several basicbeliefs. Horney believedthat if a child is raised in an

atmosphere of love and security, that child could avoid Freud’s psycho-sexual parent-child conflict.

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) accepted Freud’s basic theory, but he out-lined eight psychosocial stages (described in Chapter 3) that every persongoes through from birth to old age and that describe the importance ofinteracting with other people. These and other neo-Freudians have helpedkeep psychoanalytic theory alive and debated (Friman et al., 1993).

1. Review the Vocabulary Explain howthe id, ego, and superego work togetherin a person.

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, describethe basic views of personality of the following psychoanalysts: Carl Jung,Alfred Adler, and Sigmund Freud.

3. Recall Information What is the differ-ence between personal unconscious andcollective unconscious? How does theunconscious affect our personalities?

4. Think Critically What part of a per-sonality—id, ego, or superego—do youthink is the most important? Explainyour answer.

Assessment

5. Application Activity Create a cartoon thatillustrates the use of one of the defense mecha-nisms discussed in this section.

Psychoanalyst Views of Personality

Finding Individual Fulfillment

According to Adler, each person creates a plan—a lifestyle—forachieving superiority. The lifestyle of this Buddhist monk differs fromthat of Bill Gates. Each may have a different path to fulfillment. Howdoes Adler’s theory differ from Freud’s?

Figure 14.8CHAPTER 14Section 2, pages 378–386CHAPTER 14Section 2, pages 378–386

ReteachList characters from popular televi-sion shows on the board. Have stu-dents identify whether the characteroperates primarily on Freud’s pleas-ure, reality, or moral principles.

EnrichChallenge students to explore the sto-ries told to children of various cul-tures. Ask: What similar themes orarchetypes run through them?

4 CLOSEDivide students into pairs. Give thema stressful situation in which peoplemight use a defense mechanism.Have each student select one of thedefense mechanisms. Ask the pairsto role-play what might occur whentwo people are using defense mecha-nisms to resolve a problem or relievestress.

1. The id seeks to meet human instinctual and biologicalurges; the superego is the source of conscience andseeks to inhibit socially undesirable impulses; the ego isreality based and attempts to balance the demands ofthe id within the constraints imposed by the superego.

2. Students’ diagrams should demonstrate an understand-ing of the views of Jung, Adler, and Freud.

3. The personal unconscious is the unique part of every-one that contains information of which we are unawarebut which influences our conscious actions. The collec-

tive unconscious was identified by Jung as the part ofthe mind that contains inherited instincts, urges, andmemories. Freud believed that unconscious motivesand the feelings people experience as children have agreat impact on personality.

4. Students’ answers will vary. Encourage students toexplore how the various parts influence one another.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Encourage students to tracetheir favorite cartoon characters and assign differentwords to them.


Figure 14.8Caption Answer Adler believed theprimary driving force in people’s livesis the need to overcome feelings ofinferiority. Freud believed that a per-son’s unconscious is the primary driv-ing force.

387


In the excerpt above, Martin Luther King, Jr., described the behavior ofsome African Americans in the 1950s. King, a leader in the strugglefor civil rights, observed this behavior and looked to the environment

to see what was causing it. King recognized that an oppressive systemmaintained these behaviors. Like King, behaviorists look to the environ-ment to see what is reinforcing behavior.

American psychology has long been dominated by the study ofhuman and animal learning. John Watson believed that the proper subjectmatter of psychology ought to be observable behavior. He believed that ifit could not be seen, then it could not be studied. His beliefs led to thestudy of behavior and what is called behaviorism. Behaviorists believethat as individuals differ in their learning experiences, they acquire differ-ent behaviors and, hence, different personalities.

Learning Theories

behaviorism: belief that theproper subject matter of psy-chology is objectively observ-able behavior—and nothing else

■ Main IdeaBehaviorists are interested in howaspects of personality are learned.

■ Vocabulary• behaviorism• contingencies of reinforcement

■ Objectives• Describe Skinner’s concept of

personality.• Explain Bandura’s social cognitive

theory of personality.


Responding to OppressionThere is such a thing as the freedom

of exhaustion. Some people are so worndown by the yoke of oppression that theygive up. A few years ago in the slum areasof Atlanta, a Negro guitarist used to singalmost daily: “Been down so long thatdown don’t bother me.” This is the type of negative freedom and resignation thatoften engulfs the life of the oppressed.

But this is not the way out. To acceptpassively an unjust system is to cooperatewith that system; thereby the oppressedbecome as evil as the oppressor. . . .

—from Stride Toward Freedom: The MontgomeryStory by Martin Luther King, Jr., 1963



1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Describe Skinner’s concept of

personality.2. Explain Bandura’s social cognitive

theory of personality.


■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature and then discuss:How are our personalities affected bywhat our environment teaches us?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students write a description ofwhat they think each term mightmean. Then have them read the Glos-sary definition and compare theirdescriptions.

Reader’s Guide










2 TEACHL1 Debate Organize students intotwo panels to debate the followingquestion: Is human behavior deter-mined from within or without? Onepanel, led by Sigmund Freud, willargue the “within” position. The otherpanel, led by B.F. Skinner, will arguethe “without” position. Then havestudents decide what, if any, middleground can be found between the twotheories. BLOCK SCHEDULING

388


B.F. SKINNER: BEHAVIORISMAlthough his behaviorism was not pro-

posed as a theory of personality, B.F.Skinner had a major impact on personalitytheory. Skinner saw no need for a generalconcept of personality structure. Hefocused instead on precisely what causes aperson to act in a specific way. It is a verypragmatic approach, one that is less con-cerned with understanding behavior thanwith predicting it and controlling it. Hewas interested in how aspects of one’s per-sonality are learned. (See Chapter 9 formore discussion of behaviorism.)

Consider the case of Ruben, a collegesophomore who has been rather depressedlately. Sigmund Freud would likely seek theroots of Ruben’s unhappiness in events inhis childhood. Skinner’s approach is moredirect. First, Skinner would reject the vaguelabel depressed. Instead, he would ask exactlyhow Ruben behaves. The answer may bethat Ruben spends most of the day in his

room, cuts all his classes, rarely smiles or laughs, and makes little effort totalk to anyone.

Skinner would try to uncover the contingencies of reinforcement.What conditions are reinforcing these behaviors? What rewards doesRuben receive for never leaving his room? One hypothesis is that Ruben’sgirlfriend Brandi has unintentionally reinforced this behavior by spendinga lot of time with him, trying to cheer him up. Perhaps she did not payenough attention to Ruben before he was depressed. Note that Skinner’sapproach immediately suggests a hypothesis that can be proved true orfalse. If paying attention to Ruben encourages his depression, then ignor-ing him should decrease the likelihood of this behavior. Brandi, therefore,might try ignoring Ruben for a few days. If he then starts leaving hisroom, which she should reinforce, she has discovered the contingenciesof reinforcement that govern Ruben’s behavior. If he does not leave hisroom, she will know that the hypothesis is wrong, and she can try some-thing else. Perhaps Ruben is glued to the television in his room all dayand has become a game show addict. Take away the television, and youwill find out whether that is the reinforcer.

At first, behaviorism may seem to imply that Ruben is somehow fak-ing his depression so that he can watch game shows or see more of hisgirlfriend. Skinner does not make this assumption. Ruben may be entire-ly unaware of the rewards that are shaping his behavior. In any case,Ruben’s feelings are beside the point. What matters is not what is goingon inside Ruben’s head but how he is behaving. The point is to specifyhis behavior and then find out what causes (reinforces) it.

contingencies of reinforcement: theoccurrence of rewards or punishments following particular behaviors

Skinner devised a box to test the observable behavior of rats. According to Skinner, what motivates behavior?

Reading CheckHow do behaviorists

study personality?

B.F. Skinner’s BoxFigure 14.9

“IF WE DIDN’T DO SO WELL IN THE EASY BOX, THEYWOULDN’T HAVE GIVEN US THIS COMPLICATED BOX.”


Figure 14.9Caption Answer Behavior is motivatedby reinforcement.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Outlining Locate the heading in your textbook. Then use the information under the headingto help you write each answer.

I. Learning Theories

A. Introduction

1. What belief led to behaviorism, and why? _______________________________________________

2. What do behaviorists believe is the cause of personality differences? _______________________

B. B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism

H did Ski h h d f b h i ?

Guided ReadingActivity 14-3 Learning Theories



Reading Check Answerby examining the contingencies

of reinforcement

Psychology JournalTell students to write about a

time when their behavior was influ-enced by the behavior of a friend or afamily member. ■

Role-Play About Social Learning Organize students into small groups. Explain to thegroups that they will create a role-play situation in which one or more participants uses variousmethods of reinforcement to mold the behavior of another person. For example, a teacher mayuse reinforcement to alter classroom behavior. Have students present their plays. Then, useeach play to discuss Skinner’s contingencies of reinforcement and Bandura’s theory of sociallearning. BLOCK SCHEDULING


389


Skinner’s approach has becomevery popular among psychologists,partly because it is so action-oriented.Followers of Skinner’s work haveapplied the techniques to a widerange of behaviors, from teachingpigeons to play table tennis to teach-ing severely mentally challengedpeople to dress themselves and takepart in simple activities once believedbeyond their abilities. Therapies havealso been devised to help people withspecific behavioral problems, such asphobias and obsessive-compulsivebehavior.

Other human behavior, too, canbe changed using rewards and punish-ments. The success of behavioristswith most people has been limited,however, partly because our rein-forcers are so complex. To behavior-ists, behavior in general is a combina-tion of specific behaviors that havebeen reinforced, or learned. To changebehavior, you change the reinforcer.

ALBERT BANDURA: SOCIALCOGNITIVE THEORY

Skinner emphasized reinforcement in his description of how person-alities develop. Albert Bandura and his colleague Richard Walters (1963),however, argued that personality is acquired not only by direct reinforce-ment of behavior but also by observational learning, or imitation. As youremember from Chapter 9, in observational learning an individual acquiresa new behavior by watching the actions of other people. For example, toteach a child how to hit a baseball with a bat, you could hand the childthe bat and ball and reinforce him every time he used the bat and ball cor-rectly. However, you would probably demonstrate the correct way tohold the bat and swing at the ball instead because this way the childwould acquire the behavior more quickly. Bandura and Walters believedthat much of a young child’s individual behavior and personality isacquired by exposure to specific everyday models.

In Bandura’s view, people direct their own behavior by their choiceof models. In part, when your parents object to the company you keep,they are trying to change the models you use. The most effective modelsare those who are the most similar to and most admired by the observer.Thus, you are more likely to learn new behaviors from friends of yourchoosing than from friends your parents choose for you.

What Is Your Locus of Control?

Julian Rotter wrote the first book describing the socialcognitive approach to personality. Rotter argued that a per-son’s behavior depends not only on objective, situationalfactors but also on that person’s subjective beliefs. Our locusof control refers to our beliefs about how much control wehave over certain situations. If you believe that you do havecontrol over situations, you have an internal locus of con-trol. If you think that your fate is determined by forcesbeyond your control, you have an external locus of control.People with an internal locus of control are, on average, lessanxious and more content with life than those with anexternal locus of control.

To find a person’s locus of control, a psychologistmight ask the person if he believes the following:

1. In the long run, people get what they deserve.

2. Most tests are fair if a student is prepared.

3. Many times, tests are so unfair that studying is wasted energy.

4. It is better to make decisions and take action than to trust fate.



Use the following question todirect a class discussion after stu-dents have read the Psychologyand You feature.Ask: Which of the four questionsidentifies people with an internallocus of control? (2, 4) With anexternal locus of control? (1, 3)


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 14-3 Learning

Theories

Column A

1. occurrence of a reward or punishment following a particularbehavior

2. interaction that occurs among the observing individual, thebehavior of that individual, and the environment in whichthe behavior occurs

3. our view of our ability to succeed

4. acquiring a new behavior by watching others

5. holds that the proper subject matter of psychology is objec-tively observable behavior

Column B

A. observational learning

B. contingencies of rein-forcement

C. reciprocal determinism

D. behaviorism

E. self-efficacy

Matching


Section Quiz 14–3

Learning Style: Interpersonal Have students select one of the following topics: contin-gencies of reinforcement, observational learning, or reciprocal determinism. For the chosentopic, students should draw a cartoon that illustrates the appropriate learning theory. Ask stu-dents to distribute their cartoons to at least five classmates to read and determine which learn-ing theory is being illustrated. L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activities in the TCR for strategies for students with different learning styles.


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 14-3 Learning Theories

Directions: Fill in each blank below with the word or words that best fit the sentence.

John Watson’s belief that only objectively observable behavior is the proper subject matter of

psychology led to the field of 1 . Behaviorists believe that as individuals

differ in their learning experiences, they acquire different behaviors and, hence, different

2 .

B.F. Skinner focused on precisely what causes a person to act in a specific way. He sought to understand

the 3 on behavior. These can be viewed as 4 or

5 that shape a person’s behavior.


390


1. Review the Vocabulary According tobehaviorism, what is the proper subjectmatter of psychology? How does thisrelate to the study of personality?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, compareand contrast the following theories ofbehavior: behaviorism and social cognition.

3. Recall Information Why do you thinkpeople have different personalities?How would behaviorists explain the differences?

4. Think Critically How would behavior-ists and social learning theorists explaina person’s persistence in becoming anaccomplished tennis player?

Assessment

5. Application Activity Choose a behavior of ayounger sibling or of a friend that you would liketo see change. Suggest a way to do so, using rein-forcers to change the particular behavior.

Behaviorism SocialCognition

Similarities

Bandura has made sig-nificant contributions to thedevelopment of behavioraltheories of personality. Hissocial cognitive theory(1986) recognizes the inter-action called reciprocal deter-minism that occurs amongthe observing individual,the behavior of that individ-ual, and the environment inwhich the behavior occurs(see Figure 14.10). Oneimportant concept thatgoverns our behavior is ourview of our ability to suc-

ceed, which Bandura called self-efficacy. You decide whether to go on adate by assessing the environment—the weather, your parents’ currentstate of mind, your potential date’s recent behaviors—the effects of yourown past behavior, and your long-term past successes and failures. Thisleads to the development of an expectancy of success. As the behaviorunfolds, you also develop outcome expectations (Bandura, 1997). As long asthey remain positive, you will keep trying.

Whereas psychoanalytic theories emphasize the influence of child-hood experiences, irrational thoughts, and unconscious forces, the advan-tage of learning theories of personality is that they focus on concreteactions that can be tested and measured. However, critics argue that thelearning theories do not explain personality, nor do they give enoughattention to the influence of genetic factors, emotions, and childhoodexperiences on personality.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive TheoryAccording to Bandura’s theory, a person’s personality is shaped byan interaction among three forces—cognitive factors, behaviors, andenvironmental factors. What are the cognitive factors?

Figure 14.10

Personality Development

1. Cognitive-Personal Factors:our beliefs, expectations, values, intentions,social roles, as well as our emotional makeupand biological and genetic influences

2. Behaviors:our personal actions

3. Environmental Factors:our social, political, and cultural influencesand our personal learning experiences


Figure 14.10Visual Instruction Given the impor-tance of observation to the sociallearning theory, ask students to priori-tize the influence of each of the threeforces.

Caption Answer our beliefs, expecta-tions, values, intentions, social roles,and emotional and biological makeup

ReteachReexamine the Exploring Psychologyfeature. Ask students to explain whatSkinner and Bandura contributed toour understanding of why oppressedpeople may become resigned to theirsituations.

EnrichAsk students to write an essay apply-ing the social learning theory to theimpact of constant reporting of vio-lence by the media. Students shouldinclude suggested media guidelinesfor reporting such incidents.

4 CLOSEHave students prepare a “recap” ofthe learning theories in a news high-light style.

1. Psychology should study only observable behavior.Behaviorism demonstrates the influence of the environ-ment on personalities.

2. Diagrams should reflect students’ understanding of thebehaviorist and social cognitive theories of behavior.

3. According to the learning theories, we have differentpersonalities because we have different experiences inlife. Different behaviors have been reinforced in differentways, and we have used different models for modelingour behavior. Behaviorists would suggest that different

people experienced different reinforcements.4. Behaviorists would assume that the drive to succeed in

tennis has been reinforced in a variety of tangible andintangible ways. The social cognitive theorists wouldcredit a mix of cognitive factors such as expectationsand intentions and environmental factors such as theinfluence of people the tennis player respects.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Students may want toreview the material in Chapter 9.


391


In 1947 life in America was one of segregation. There were separateschools for African Americans and whites, separate restaurants, sepa-rate hotels, separate drinking fountains, and even separate baseball

leagues—that is, until Jackie Robinson began playing for the BrooklynDodgers. Robinson played the game passionately and, despite colossalobstacles, changed the face of baseball. His experience shows the impactthat believing in one’s own abilities can have on personal success. Theidea that individuals’ perceptions of themselves can become their realityis part of the humanistic and cognitive theories of personality.

Humanistic and CognitiveTheories

■ Main IdeaHumanistic and cognitive theories ofpersonality stress the positive aspects ofhuman nature.

■ Vocabulary• humanistic psychology• self-actualization• self• positive regard• conditions of worth• unconditional positive regard• fully functioning

■ Objectives• Explain Maslow’s idea of self-

actualization.• Describe Carl Rogers’s view of human

behavior.


Changing a NationJackie Robinson had to be bigger

than life. He had to be bigger than theBrooklyn teammates who got up a peti-tion to keep him off the ball club, biggerthan the pitchers who threw at him or thebase runners who dug their spikes into hisshin, bigger than the bench jockeys whohollered for him to carry their bags andshine their shoes, bigger than the so-calledfans who mocked him with mops on theirheads and wrote him death threats. . . .Somehow, though, Jackie had the strengthto suppress his instincts, to sacrifice hispride for his people’s. It was an incredibleact of selflessness that brought the racescloser together than ever before andshaped the dreams of an entire generation.

—from “Jackie Robinson” by Henry Aaron inTIME magazine, June 14, 1999



1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Explain Maslow’s idea of

self-actualization.2. Describe Carl Rogers’s view of

human behavior.


■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature. Then ask: Whatdrove Jackie Robinson to take sucha big risk? Did Robinson fulfill hispotential? Why or why not?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students read the Glossary defini-tions of the terms and create a match-ing game with terms on one card anddefinitions on another card, matchingthe terms and their definitions.

Reader’s Guide










2 TEACHL1 Making Posters Write thefollowing statement on the board: Tothine own self be true. Ask: Howwould humanistic psychologistslikely view this statement?(as areflection of the human urge for self-actualization) Working individu-ally, assign students to draw postersillustrating this concept as it appliesto them. Display the posters aroundthe room. BLOCK SCHED-ULING

ELL

392


HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGYHumanistic psychology may be viewed as a rebellion against the

rather negative, pessimistic view of human nature that dominated person-ality theory in the early 1900s. Psychoanalysts emphasized the struggle tocontrol primitive, instinctual urges on the one hand and to come to termswith the demands of the superego, or conscience, on the other. Thebehaviorists, too, saw human behavior in mechanistic terms: our actionsare shaped by rewards and punishments. Humanistic psychologists objectto both approaches on the grounds that they demean human beings—Freud by emphasizing irrational and destructive instincts, Skinner byemphasizing only external causes of behavior. In contrast, the humanistsstress our ability to create and live by personal standards and perceptions.

Humanistic psychology is founded on the belief that all human beingsstrive for self-actualization—that is, the realization of our potentialitiesas unique human beings. Self-actualization involves an openness to a widerange of experiences, an awareness of and respect for one’s own and otherpeople’s uniqueness, accepting the responsibilities of freedom and com-mitment, a desire to become more and more authentic or true to oneself,and an ability to grow.

ABRAHAM MASLOW: GROWTH AND SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) became one ofthe guiding spirits of the humanistic movement inpsychology. He deliberately set out to create whathe called “a third force in psychology” as an alter-native to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Maslowtried to base his theory of personality on studies ofhealthy, creative, self-actualizing people who fullyutilize their talents and potential rather than onstudies of disturbed individuals.

When Maslow decided to study the most pro-ductive individuals he could find—in history as wellas in his social and professional circles—he brokenew ground. Psychotherapists developed the theo-ries of personality discussed earlier after years ofworking with people who could not cope witheveryday frustrations and conflicts. In contrast,Maslow was curious about people who not onlycoped with everyday problems effectively but who also created exceptional lives for themselves,people like Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, andEleanor Roosevelt.

Maslow found that although these peoplesometimes had great emotional difficulties, theyadjusted in ways that allowed them to become

humanistic psychology:a school of psychology thatemphasizes personal growthand the achievement of maximum potential by eachunique individual

self-actualization: thehumanist term for realizingone’s unique potential

Jackie Robinson was the first AfricanAmerican to play in major league baseball and became a hero to millions. How doesJackie Robinson’s life reflect the humanistideal of self-actualization?

An American FirstFigure 14.11


Figure 14.11Caption Answer Despite all the per-sonal risks and insults he endured,Robinson broke the color barrier inbaseball, became a symbol for ath-letes of color, and excelled at his cho-sen endeavor, thereby realizing hisown unique potential.

Humanism Tell students thatMaslow began his career as abehavioral psychologist. Hebecame a humanistic psychologistafter the birth of his first child. Ofthe experience, he wrote: “I wasstunned by the mystery and by thesense of not really being in control.I felt small and weak and feeblebefore all this. I’d say anyone whohad a baby couldn’t be a behavior-ist.” Ask students to discuss whythe birth of his child would turnhim away from behaviorism andtoward humanism.

@Looking the Issues

Creating a Pamphlet Discuss the meaning of the expression “tough love” with the class(taking strong measures—including leaving a person to his or her own destructive behavior—tobring about change). Organize students into small groups. Ask the groups to consider the follow-ing questions: How do you think Maslow and other humanists might view “tough love”? What,if any, alternatives might they suggest? Which approach do you think works best in curbingpotentially destructive behavior? Have students create a pamphlet that their peers could use tohelp a friend who has a drinking problem or other potentially destructive behavioral problem.


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highly productive. Maslow also found that self-actualized individuals sharea number of traits (see Figure 14.12). First, they perceive reality accu-rately, unlike most people who, because of prejudices and wishful think-ing, perceive it rather inaccurately. Self-actualized people also acceptthemselves, other people, and their environments more readily than mostpeople do. Without realizing it, most of us project our hopes and fearsonto the world around us. We deny our own shortcomings and try to ratio-nalize or change things we do not like about ourselves. Self-actualizingindividuals accept themselves as they are.

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

Maslow proposed the concept of a self-actualized personality, which identifies aperson with high productivity and enjoymentof life. Do you think any person candevelop a self-actualized personality,regardless of his or her social or economicstatus? Explain.

Figure 14.12

They are realistically oriented.

They accept themselves, other people, and the natural world for what they are.

They have a great deal of spontaneity.

They are problem-centered rather than self-centered.

They have an air of detachment and a need for privacy.

They are autonomous and independent.

Their appreciation of people and things is fresh rather than stereotyped.

Most of them have had profound mystical or spiritual experiences, although notnecessarily religious in character.

They identify with humanity.

Their intimate relationships with a few specially loved people tend to be pro-found and deeply emotional rather than superficial.

Their values and attitudes are democratic.

They do not confuse means with ends.

Their sense of humor is philosophical rather than hostile.

They have a great fund of creativeness.

They resist conformity to the culture.

They transcend the environment rather than just coping with it.

Source: Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row, 1970.



Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Guided ReadingActivity 14-4 Humanistic and

Cognitive Theories

Directions: Filling in the Blanks Use your textbook to fill in the blanks using the words in the box.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychologists object to both psychoanalytic and behaviorist approaches on the grounds that

they 1 human beings. Humanistic psychology is founded on the belief that all

human beings strive for the realization of our 2 as unique human beings.

Abraham Maslow: Growth and Self-Actualization

Maslow decided to study the most 3 people he could find He found that although


adjusted environment predictions

approval observing productive

basic perception value

demean potentiality


Psychology JournalHave students consider the

description of a self-actualized per-son. Then have them write the nameof a person they know who they con-sider to have achieved self-actualiza-tion and explain why they believe theperson to be self-actualized. ■

Learning Style: Intrapersonal Review Carl Rogers’s ideas on self-image. Then have stu-dents complete the following statement: My greatest potential as a person lies in my skill/abil-ity/talent to __________. Tell students to list as many examples of potential as possible. Havethem ask friends and family members for suggestions as well. Based on the list and on Rogers’sdefinition of positive self-worth, have students write a description of themselves. L2BLOCK SCHEDULING

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activities in the TCR for strategies for students with different learning styles.


Figure 14.12Visual Instruction To make certainstudents understand the terminologyused in the table, ask them to providean example that demonstrates eachitem. The examples may be real or fictitious.

Caption Answer Answers will vary.Famous examples of people whoachieved self-actualization withoutnecessarily having secure economicstatus are Mohandas Gandhi, NelsonMandela, Mother Teresa, and DawAung San Suu Kyi, the Nobel PeacePrize winner from Myanmar.

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Because they are secure in themselves, self-actualized individuals aremore problem-centered than self-centered. They are able to focus ontasks in a way that people concerned about maintaining and protectingtheir self-image cannot. They are more likely to base decisions on ethicalprinciples rather than on calculations of the possible costs or benefits tothemselves. They have a strong sense of identity with other humanbeings, and they have a strong sense of humor but laugh with people, notat them.

Maslow also found that self-actualized people are exceptionallyspontaneous. They do not try to be anything other than themselves, andthey know themselves well enough to maintain their integrity in the faceof opposition, unpopularity, and rejection. They are autonomous. Theyvalue privacy and frequently seek out solitude. This is not to say thatthey are detached or aloof; rather than trying to be popular, they focus on deep, loving relationships with the few people to whom theyare truly close.

Finally, the people Maslow studied had a rare ability to appreciateeven the simplest things. They approached their lives with a sense of discovery that made each day a new day. They rarely felt bored or unin-terested. Given to moments of intense joy and satisfaction, or peak ex-periences, they enjoyed life itself. Maslow believed this to be both a causeand an effect of their creativity and originality (Maslow, 1970).

Maslow believed that to become self-actualized, a person must first satisfy his or her basic, primary needs—for food and shelter, physicalsafety, love and belonging, and self-esteem. Of course, to some extent theability to satisfy these needs is often beyond our control. Still, no amountof wealth, talent, or beauty can totally shield someone from frustrationand disappointment. All people have to adjust to maintain themselvesand to grow.

Many psychologists have criticized Maslow’s work. His claim thathuman nature is good, for example, has been called an intrusion of sub-jective values into what should be a neutral science. The levels of specificneeds, such as physical contact comfort, discussed in Chapter 12, havenot been defined (Feist, 1985). His study of self-actualizing people has

been criticized becausethe sample was chosenon the basis of Maslow’sown subjective criteria.How can one identifyself-actualized peoplewithout knowing thecharacteristics of suchpeople? But then, if oneknows these characteris-tics to begin with, whatsense does it make to list them as if they werethe results of an empiri-cal study?

Proclaiming Your Self-Worth

You can progress toward self-actualization after you have developed asense of self-esteem, or self-worth. What traits associated with Maslow’sdefinition of a self-actualized person does Charlie Brown display?

Figure 14.13

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Figure 14.13Caption Answer Possible answersinclude he accepts himself as he is,is secure, has a sense of humor, isspontaneous, appreciates simplethings.

Synthesizing Information Working individually or in pairs, have students reviewLawrence Kohlberg’s levels of moral development described in Chapter 4. Ask students to con-sider the following: Using the theory of human development, at what stage would you placethe self-actualized person described by Maslow? (probably Stage 6) What items in Figure14.12 support your choice? (Answers will vary. Three examples of Stage 6 thinking include“They do not confuse means with ends.” “They resist conformity to the culture.” “They transcendthe environment rather than just trying to cope with it.”) L2


Enhancing Self-Esteem Tell stu-dents that a key component ofeducation today is enhancing theself-esteem of students. Psycholo-gists have long believed that stu-dents with high self-esteem willachieve more. But how do youmeasure self-esteem? The Behav-ioral Academic Self-Esteem (BASE)Scale was developed by StanleyCoopersmith and Ragnar Gilbertsin 1982. It seeks to measure self-esteem by categorizing behavior infive areas: student initiative, socialattention, success/failure, socialattraction, and self-confidence.Some of the specific assessmentsinclude a willingness to undertakenew tasks, an ability to make deci-sions, an ability to talk in class asappropriate, and a capacity toaccept correction without overre-acting. Ask: Do you think theseassessments are important toself-esteem? What other assess-ments do you consider importantin measuring self-esteem? How doyou think self-esteem influencesacademic achievement?

@Looking the Issues

Explain that the humanistic the-ory focuses on human potential.It stands in opposition to Freud’semphasis on unconscious factorsbeyond an individual’s control. Itis also a reaction to the mechani-cal nature of behaviorism.

395


self: one’s experience orimage of oneself, developedthrough interaction with others

positive regard: viewingoneself in a favorable light dueto supportive feedback receivedfrom interaction with others

conditions of worth: theconditions a person must meetin order to regard himself orherself positively

CARL ROGERS: SELFTHEORY

Carl Rogers (1902–1987)called the people he counseled“clients,” not “patients.” Theword patient implies illness, anegative label that Rogersrejected. As a therapist, Rogerswas primarily concerned withthe path to self-actualization,or “full functioning,” as hecalled it. Rogers believedthat many people sufferfrom a conflict betweenwhat they value in them-selves and what theybelieve other people valuein them. There are twosides or parts to every per-son. Rogers believed thateach person is constantlystruggling to become moreand more complete andperfect. Anything that fur-thers this end is good—theperson wants to becomeeverything he or she canpossibly be. Different peo-ple have different potential-ities, but every personwants to realize thesepotentialities, to makethem real, whatever theyare. Whatever you can do,you want to do—and do aswell as possible. This opti-mism about human natureis the essence of humanism.

Each individual also has what Rogers called a self. The self is essen-tially your image of who you are and what you value—in yourself, inother people, in life in general. The self is something you acquire gradu-ally over the years by observing how other people react to you. You wantapproval or positive regard. You ask yourself, “How does she see me?”If the answer is “She loves me. She likes what I am and what I do,” thenyou begin to develop positive regard for yourself.

Yet often this does not happen. In other words, she places conditionson her love: If you do what she wants, she likes you. Young and impres-sionable, you accept these verdicts and incorporate conditions of worth

C arl Rogers is best known for his role in the development ofcounseling. Rogers believed that therapy should focus on present

problems—psychologists should not dwell on the past and the causesof present problems. Rogers believed that people are basically goodand can solve their own problems once they realize that they can.

Rogers started out by rejecting two principles. He first beganstudying to become a minister, but then he started to doubt thatthe religious approach was the most effective way of helping peo-ple. Then, while training to become a psychoanalyst, Rogers real-ized that psychoanalysts focused on gaining insight into the causesof a patient’s problems. Rogers rejected this approach, finally creat-ing his client-centered approach. Rogers used his approach to helpclients better understand their subjective experiences and thenwork to change their own subjective views of themselves, theworld, and other people.

Rogers was also a teacher. He advocated one-on-oneapproaches to teaching. He saw the role of the teacher as onewho creates an environment for engagement; that is, the teacherinspires an exploratory atmosphere in which students seekanswers to problems.

Carl Rogers1902–1987

“[T]he client knows whathurts, what directions to

go, what problems arecrucial, what experi-

ences have been buried.”

Profiles In Psychology



Profiles In Psychology

Ask students to read theProfiles In Psychologyfeature and then discussthe following questions:

1. For what is Carl Rogers best-known? (his role in the devel-opment of counseling)

2. What two approaches did hereject? (religion as anapproach to helping peopleand psychoanalysis with itsfocus on the causes of problems)

3. How did he describe the roleof the teacher? (as someonewho creates an environmentof exploration and excitementabout learning)

Examining Your Motivations Explain that peak performance is one keyto Maslow’s theory. Peak performance is a moment when all your personal powers, gratitude,and sense of fulfillment unite. Ask students to complete the following writing assignment usingMaslow’s own instructions: I would like you to think of the most wonderful experiences of yourlife;…perhaps from being in love, or from listening to music or suddenly ‘being hit’ by a book orpainting, or some great creative moment. First list these. And then try to tell me how you feel insuch acute moments, how you feel differently from the way you feel at other times, how you areat the moment a different person. Ask: How does each experience described fit Maslow’s defi-nition of self-actualization? L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING


Have you ever heard your parentssay, “You’re acting just like yourmother (or father)”? Some psy-chobiologists study how genetic,or inherited, traits shape our per-sonalities. Although genetic factors do not set our behavior,they do interact with environmentalfactors to influence our behavior.For example, psychobiologists havefound that identical twins (siblingsthat share the same genes) share many identical personalitycharacteristics.

396


into yourself. You begin to see yourself as good and worthy only if youact in certain ways. You have learned from your parents and from otherpeople who are significant to you that unless you meet certain conditions,you will not be loved.

Rogers’s work as a therapist convinced him that people cope withconditions of worth by rejecting or denying parts of their person that donot fit their self-concept. For example, if your mother grew cold and dis-tant whenever you became angry, you learned to deny yourself the rightto express or perhaps even feel anger. In effect, you are cutting off a partof your whole being; you are allowing yourself to experience and expressonly part of what you are.

The greater the gap between the self and the person, the more limited and defensive a person becomes. Rogers believed the cure for this situation—and the way to prevent it from ever developing—isunconditional positive regard. If significant others (parents, friends, amate) convey the feeling that they value you for what you are in yourentirety, you will gradually learn to grant yourself the same uncondi-tional positive regard. The need to limit yourself declines or never devel-ops in the first place. You will be able to accept your person and becomeopen to all your feelings, thoughts, and experiences—and hence to otherpeople. This is what Rogers meant by fully functioning. The person and

the self are one. The individual is free to develop all ofhis or her potentialities. Like Maslow and other human-istic psychologists, Rogers believed that self-regard andregard for others go together and that the human poten-tial for good and self-fulfillment outweighs the potentialfor evil and despair (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980).

Humanistic approaches to personality emphasizethat life is a conscious experience—that is, we freelychoose how we spend our lives. Our conscious experi-ence, though, is private and subjective. Critics argue thatthe humanistic theories cannot be tested. These theoriesdescribe behavior rather than explain it. Humaniststhemselves argue that each individual is unique, andtherefore their theories cannot predict behavior.

COGNITIVE THEORYCognitive theory is based on analysis of our own

perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. George Kelly(1905–1967) based his personal construct theory on ananalysis of our perception of ourselves and our envi-ronment. In Kelly’s view, our personality consists of ourthoughts about ourselves, including our biases, errors,mistakes, and false conclusions.

Kelly’s fundamental idea is that our “processes arepsychologically channelized by the ways in which (eachof us) anticipates events” (Kelly, 1958). He thought

fully functioning: an indi-vidual whose person and selfcoincide

Culture and PersonalityAs you read this chapter, you should

realize that the personality theories presentedhere do not apply to all humans. The obser-vations on which these theories are basedcenter primarily on studies of people in NorthAmerica and Western Europe. Those studied,then, represent only a minority of the humanson Earth. People in non-Western culturesmay look at themselves differently. For in-stance, such a person may not view herselfas a separate entity from her family or com-munity. Concepts such as internal locus ofcontrol, self-efficacy, and optimism may havedifferent meanings depending on one’s cul-ture. In one study of Asian Americans, forexample, those who expressed pessimismabout their abilities performed better at solv-ing problems than those who expressedoptimism (Chang, 1996). In studies ofCaucasian Americans, just the oppositeresults occurred—an optimistic belief inone’s abilities correlates positively with problem solving.

unconditional positiveregard: the perception that individuals’ significant othersvalue them for what they are,which leads the individuals togrant themselves the samefavorable opinion or view

Reading CheckWhat is the “self” as

Rogers defines it?


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 14-4 Humanistic and

Cognitive Theories

Directions: Complete each sentence by writing the term that best completes the sentence.

conditions of worth self

fully functioning self-actualization

humanistic psychology unconditional positive regard

positive regard

1. One’s experience or image of oneself developed through interaction with others is referred to as

the .

2. In a(n) person, the individual and the self are one.

3. A person must meet the that are learned from parents, teachers,and other significant individuals in order to regard himself or herself positively.

4. By stressing each individual’s uniqueness, rebelled against the pessimistic view of human nature that dominated personality theory in the early 1900s.

5. Another term for approval is .


History Have students select a historical figure who achieved much without having the appar-ent advantages of birth, social standing, or wealth. Have them research the figure and create adisplay entitled “You Can Make a Difference,” highlighting the person’s achievements in terms ofMaslow’s characteristics of self-actualization. If possible, exhibit the best of the displays inplaces where other students in the school can be inspired by the achievements of these histori-cal figures. L2

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITY


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 14-4

Humanistic and CognitiveTheories

Column A

1. humanist term for realizing one’s unique potential

2. describes an individual whose person and self coincide

3. viewing oneself in a positive light due to positive feedbackreceived from interaction with others

4. person must meet these in order to regard himself or herselfpositively

5. experience or image of oneself, developed through interac-tion with others

Column B

A. positive regard

B. self

C. fully functioning

D. self-actualization

E. conditions of worth

Matching


Section Quiz 14–4

Reading Check AnswerThe self is your image of who

you are and what you value in your-self, in others, and in life.

ReteachWrite each of the major concepts ofCarl Rogers’s theory on the board.Have students define the terms andexplain the connections between theconcepts.

397


these processes were channeled becauseour response options are limited by theorganization of the network of our potentialresponses. Our individuality comes fromthe unique manner in which we organizeour personal constructs—our schemas—ourmental representations of people, events,and concepts.

Expanding on Kelly’s work, psychiatristAaron T. Beck (1921-) noted his clients’ ten-dency to think negatively—anticipating theworst—and maintain irrational thoughtprocesses. Beck developed a theory thatwould concentrate on turning negativethoughts into constructive ones by challeng-ing clients’ fundamentally flawed thoughtprocesses. Beck’s intent was to help theclient develop ways to explain his or herproblems as related to the environmentrather than automatically assuming theywere personality flaws. Finally, a rationalanalysis would be conducted to developnew, different strategies for the experiences that previously had yielded neg-ative conclusions from flawed thinking (Beck & Rush, 1989; Beck, 1995).

Some aspects of cognitive theory are moving closer to traditionalbehavioral theories of personality. However, the modern cognitive theo-ries, in contrast to behavioral theory, maintain a more positive, optimisticview of our personality.

I’m OK—You’re OKFigure 14.14

Rogers proposed that people should relate to oneanother with unconditional positive regard. What isunconditional positive regard?

1. Review the Vocabulary What is self-actualization? How does one achieve it?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, illustratethe steps an individual needs to take tobe fully functioning, according toRogers’s theory.

3. Recall Information How do conditionsof worth influence your personality,according to Rogers?

4. Think Critically Do you think uncon-ditional positive regard is important forhealthy personality development? Whyor why not?

Assessment

5. Application Activity Think of a close friend,family member, or one of your heroes. Using theinformation in Figure 14.12, evaluate which traitsof self-actualized individuals he or she shares.

1

2

3Fully Functioning Individual



Figure 14.14Caption Answer the perception thatsignificant people in your life valueyou for what you are, allowing you toshare the same view of yourself

EnrichAssign students to debate the follow-ing: Resolved—That human beingshave little free will in determining theshape of their personalities. Appointsome students to argue the pro posi-tion using examples of behavioristand psychoanalytic theories as evi-dence. Direct others to argue the conposition using the ideas and experi-ments of Carl Rogers.

4 CLOSEDivide students into groups. Assigneach group one of the following: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, GeorgeKelly. Have each group create a tabledescribing the theorists’ lives, work,and major contributions to psychology.

1. It is the realization of one’s unique potential as ahuman being; openness to many experiences, aware-ness of and respect for one’s own and other people’suniqueness, accepting the responsibilities of freedomand commitment, a desire to become truer to oneself,an ability to grow

2. Diagrams should reflect students’ understanding ofRogers’s theory and what it takes to be a fully function-ing individual.

3. You redefine your personality by the conditions of worthimposed by those you respect, even if that meansrejecting parts of yourself.

4. Students’ answers will vary. Encourage students to consider the connection between acceptance and selfconcept.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Encourage students to con-sider how their heroes’ self-actualized characteristicsinfluence the respect the students have for them.


398

Terms such as nice, smart, and arrogant refer to personality traits.Some theorists have argued that studying such traits in detail isthe best approach to solving the puzzle of human behavior.

A trait is “any relatively enduring way in which one individual differsfrom another” (Guilford, 1959). A trait, then, is a predisposition torespond in a certain way in many different kinds of situations—in a den-tist’s office, at a party, or in a classroom. More than any other personal-ity theorists, trait theorists emphasize and try to explain the consistencyof a normal, healthy individual’s behavior in different situations.

Trait Theories

trait: a tendency to react to asituation in a way that remainsstable over time

■ Main IdeaTrait theorists believe that charactertraits account for consistency of behav-ior in different situations.

■ Vocabulary• trait• cardinal trait• factor analysis• surface trait• source trait• extravert• introvert

■ Objectives• Explain the main features of trait

personality.• Describe Allport’s, Cattell’s, and

Eysenck’s theories of personality.


Characteristics of Personality“Tell me about Nelson,” said Johnetta. “Oh, he’s just terrific. He’s the friend-

liest guy I know—goes out of his way tobe nice to everyone. He hardly ever getsmad. He’s just so even-tempered, no mat-ter what’s happening. And he’s reallysmart, too. About the only thing I don’tlike is that he’s always in such a hurry toget things done. He seems to have bound-less energy, much more than I have.”

“He sounds great to me, especially incomparison to Rico,” replied Johnetta. “Heis so self-centered and arrogant it drivesme crazy. I sometimes wonder why I everstarted going out with him.”

—from Understanding Psychology by Robert S.Feldman, 2005



1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Explain the main features of trait

personality.2. Describe Allport’s, Cattell’s, and

Eysenck’s theories of personality.


■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature. Then ask: Whatwords do you use to describe yourfriends to other friends? Are thesetraits accurate descriptions of theperson’s personality?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students read the Glossary defi-nition of trait and then write downtheir best guess at the definitions ofthe remaining terms. Students shouldcheck their definitions against theGlossary.

Use the Vocabulary PuzzleMakerCD-ROM to create crossword andword search puzzles.

Reader’s Guide



5Daily Focus Transparency 14–5





Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM



399

WHAT IS THE TRAIT THEORY OF PERSONALITY?

Trait theorists generally make two basicassumptions about these underlying sourcesof consistency. First, every trait applies to allpeople. For example, everyone can be classi-fied as more or less dependent. Second, thesedescriptions can be quantified. We might, forexample, establish a scale on which anextremely independent person scores 1, whilea very dependent person scores 10.

Thus, every trait can be used to des-cribe people. Aggressiveness, for example, ismeasured on a continuum; a few people areextremely aggressive or extremely unaggres-sive, and most of us fall somewhere in themiddle. We understand people by specifyingtheir traits, and we use traits to predict peo-ple’s future behavior.

Trait theorists go beyond this kind ofcommon-sense analysis, however, to try todiscover the underlying sources of the consis-tency of human behavior. What is the bestway to describe the common features ofsomeone’s behavior? Is he friendly, or sociallyaggressive, or interested in people, or self-confident, or something else? What underly-ing trait best explains his behavior?

Most (but not all) trait theorists believethat a few basic traits are central for all people.An underlying trait of self-confidence, forexample, might be used to explain moresuperficial characteristics like social aggressiveness and dependency. If thiswere true, it would mean that a person would be dependent because he orshe lacked self-confidence. Psychologists who accept this approach set outon their theoretical search for basic traits with very few assumptions.

This is very different from the starting point of other personality the-orists we have considered. Freud, for example, began with a well-definedtheory of instincts. When he observed that some people were stingy, heset out to explain this in terms of his theory. Trait theorists would notstart by trying to understand stinginess. Rather, they would try to deter-mine whether stinginess was a trait. That is, they would try to find outwhether people who were stingy in one type of situation were also stingyin others. Then they might ask whether stinginess is a sign of a morebasic trait like possessiveness: Is the stingy person also very possessive inrelationships? Thus, the first and foremost question for the trait theoristsis, “What behaviors go together?”


Reading CheckHow does trait theory

differ from psychoanalytic theo-ries of personality?

“That’s Mr. Brock. He didn’t have a happy New Year, a happy Valentine’s Day, a happy St. Patrick’s Day, a happy Easter, a happy Father’s Day, a happy Halloween, a happy Thanks-giving, or a merry Christmas. He did have, however, a safe

and sane Fourth of July.”

This cartoon highlights personality traits. Often wedescribe a person’s personality in terms of traits.Which personality traits does this cartoon emphasize?

Personality TraitsFigure 14.15

2 TEACHL1 Describing Traits Readaloud the definition of trait from thetext. As a class, make a list of com-mon traits on the board. Prepare onnewsprint or poster board the head-ings: Surface Trait and Source Trait.Post these headings. Have studentsclassify the traits that have beenlisted on the board by transferringitems to the appropriate list. Notethat some traits could be listed underboth headings. ELL



Figure 14.15Caption Answer Students may sug-gest unhappy, reserved, serious, ortough-minded.

Reading Check AnswerPsychoanalytic theories attempt

to explain behavior. The trait theoryseeks to define and describe traits,assuming that all traits are present in all people.

Identifying Central Issues Read aloud the following quotes.■ The face is the image of the soul. (Cicero)■ I am not much in fear of these fat, sleek fellows, but rather those pale, thin ones. (Julius

Caesar)■ Cassius hath a lean and hungry look; he thinks too much: such men are dangerous. (from

Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare)Ask: Upon what basis are each of these personality judgments based? (physical appearance)To what extent do people still judge personality by physical types? What are the limitations ofthis attitude? L2


Studies of identical twins rearedtogether or apart have led manypsychologists to the conclusionthat personality traits are about 50to 60 percent inherited, meaningthat traits have some physiologicalbasis.

400

GORDON ALLPORT: IDENTIFYING TRAITSGordon W. Allport (1897–1967) was an influential psychologist in

his day. A trait, Allport said, makes a wide variety of situations “func-tionally equivalent”; that is, a person’s traits will be consistent in differ-ent situations. Allport, along with H.S. Odbert, probed an English dictionary, searching for words that described personality traits. Theyfound almost 18,000 such words. They then narrowed the list by group-ing synonyms and keeping just one word for each cluster of synonyms.Assuming any important personality trait is reflected in language, ifAllport’s team found words such as honesty and dishonesty, each wasassigned to a separate cluster with similar contrasting words. Allportdefined common traits as those that apply to everyone and individualtraits as those that apply more to a specific person.

Allport described three kinds of individual traits. A cardinal trait isone that is so pervasive that the person is almost identified with that trait.An example would be Scrooge, who is identified as stingy and cold-hearted in Charles Dickens’s tale A Christmas Carol. A central trait makes

us predictable (she’s assertive; he’s aflirt) in most situations. Secondarytraits, such as our preferences infood and music, are least importantto Allport and have a less consistentinfluence on us.

An example of an individualtrait is found in Allport’s book let-ters from Jenny (1965), which con-sists of hundreds of letters that awoman whom Allport calls JennyMasterson wrote to a friend (seeReadings in Psychology, p. 408).Jenny reveals herself in these let-ters, which she wrote between theages of 58 and 70, as a complex andfiercely independent woman. In hispreface to the book, Allport wrote:

[The] fascination of theLetters lies in their challenge tothe reader (whether psycholo-gist or layman) to “explain”Jenny—if he can. Why does anintelligent lady behave so persis-tently in a self-defeating manner?

Allport’s own attempt to under-stand Jenny began with a search forthe underlying traits that wouldexplain the consistency of herbehavior.


Reserved Outgoing

Less intelligent More intelligent

Affected by feelings Emotionally stable

Submissive Dominant

Serious Happy-go-lucky

Expedient Conscientious

Timid Venturesome

Tough-minded Sensitive

Trusting Suspicious

Practical Imaginative

Forthright Shrewd

Self-assured Apprehensive

Conservative Experimenting

Group-dependent Self-sufficient

Uncontrolled Controlled

Relaxed Tense

Cattell’s Sixteen Source Traits

Cattell used his sixteen source traits to develop a person-ality questionnaire, which was used to measure the traitsin an individual. Each trait is listed as a pair of oppositeson a continuum. What did Cattell believe measuring thesource traits could predict?

Figure 14.16

cardinal trait: a characteris-tic or feature that is so pervasivethe person is almost identifiedwith it


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Recalling the Facts Use the information in your textbook to answer the questions.

1. What do trait theorists do more than any other personality theorists? ____________________________

2. What two assumptions do trait theorists make? _______________________________________________

3. What is the most important question for trait theorists? ________________________________________

4. What did Gordon Allport mean when he said that a trait makes a wide variety of situations “func-

tionally equivalent”?________________________________________________________________________

5. What did Allport use in his search to identify personality traits? _________________________________

6. According to Allport, what kind of traits are food and music preferences? ________________________

Guided ReadingActivity 14-5 Trait Theories



Psychology JournalHave students consider their

own traits and make a list of itemsthat describe their central traits andtheir secondary traits. ■

Readings and CaseStudies in Psychology Have students read the Chapter 14Reading selection in Readings andCase Studies in Psychology andanswer the questions that follow thereading.

Learning Style: Kinesthetic Have students construct an abacus-type scale for personal-ity traits using Eysenck’s three basic dimensions of personality. The scale should have anchorsat each end representing the two extremes. Between the anchors, secure metal, twine, or othersturdy material on which beads can be strung. Use 10 beads for each dimension. All the beadsat one end would indicate that someone is at the extreme on that dimension. Have students usethe scales to describe their personalities using Eysenck’s three dimensions. L2 BLOCKSCHEDULING


Figure 14.16Visual Instruction Ask each studentto orally define one or two of thesesource trait descriptions. Allow students to look up the words, if necessary, in order to refine their definitions.

Caption Answer He believed psychol-ogists could predict people’s behaviorin certain situations.

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RAYMOND CATTELL: SIXTEEN TRAIT THEORYMore recent theorists have concentrated on what Allport

called common traits, which they try to quantify in a precise,scientific manner. Their primary tool in this task has beenfactor analysis, a sophisticated mathematical techniquethat describes the extent to which different personalityvariables are related.

Using Allport’s list of traits, Raymond Cattell(1905–1998) proposed that characteristics that can beobserved in certain situations make up 46 traits, calledsurface traits, of observable behavior. These traits makeup behavior that is based on people’s perceptions of per-sonality. Using further factor analyses, Cattell found thatcertain surface traits seem to occur in clusters. Cattell fur-ther researched what these clusters had in common. Thisanalysis resulted in 16 source traits—traits that he con-sidered to be at the core of personality (see Figure 14.16).Cattell believed that by measuring these traits, psycholo-gists could predict people’s behavior in certain situations.

HANS EYSENCK: DIMENSIONS OFPERSONALITY

Using factor analysis of personality data, HansEysenck (1916–), an English psychologist, concluded that there are two basicdimensions of personality (see Figure 14.17). The first dimension, stability ver-sus instability, refers to the degree to which people have control over their feel-ings. At the emotionally stable end of the personality spectrum is a personwho is easygoing, relaxed, well-adjusted, and even-tempered. At the anxiety-dominated end of the spectrum is the moody, anxious, and restless person.

Eysenck’s second dimension was actually identified years earlier byCarl Jung as extraversion versus introversion. Extraverts are sociable, out-going, active, lively people. They enjoy parties and seek excitement. Onthe other end of the dimension are introverts, who are more thoughtful,reserved, passive, unsociable, and quiet.

Years after he identified the first two dimensions, Eysenck added athird, psychoticism. At one end of this dimension are self-centered, hostile,and aggressive people, who act without much thought. Individuals at theother end of this dimension have what Freud might label high superego.They tend to be socially sensitive, high on caring and empathy, and easypeople with whom to work (Eysenck, 1970, 1990).

THE ROBUST FIVEOver the years, trait theorists have devised a number of ways to mea-

sure personality. Each involves a different number of traits or factors.Trait psychologists have shown that five traits appear repeatedly in


factor analysis: a complexstatistical technique used toidentify the underlying reasonsvariables are correlated

surface trait: a stable char-acteristic that can be observedin certain situations

source trait: a stable charac-teristic that can be consideredto be at the core of personality

extravert: an outgoing, activeperson who directs his or herenergies and interests towardother people and things

introvert: a reserved, with-drawn person who is preoccu-pied with his or her innerthoughts and feelings

INTROVERTED

Quiet

Unsociable

Reserved

Pessimistic

Sober

Rigid

Anxious

Moody

Touchy

Restless

Aggressive

Excitable

Changeable

Impulsive

Optimistic

Active

Leadership

Carefree

Lively

Easygoing

Responsive

Talkative

Outgoing

Sociable

Passive

Careful

Thoughtful

Peaceful

Controlled

Reliable

Even-Tempered

Calm MELANCHOLIC

CHOLERIC

PHLEGMATIC

SANGUINE

UNSTABLESTABLE

EXTRAVERTED

Eysenck’s Personality TableFigure 14.17

Eysenck hypothesized that introvertedpeople share a number of traits, whileextraverted people share the oppositetraits. Eysenck’s theory is similar toGalen’s ancient theory for four tempera-ments (see the Case Study on page 23).What traits would an extraverted andstable (sanguine) person exhibit?



Allport’s Functional Autonomy Tell students that Gordon Allport did not believe that aperson’s past was of great significance. He used the term functional autonomy to describe hisbelief. For example, Allport would state that it does not matter why you wanted to become a goodstudent; it only matters that you are one now. Have students make a list of a half dozen of theirpersonality traits. Ask students to consider past events that may have influenced these traits.Have students write a short summary of these events next to the trait in question. Now, ask students to debate the question: From this point on in your life, what determines your behavior,past experiences or current personality traits? L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING


Figure 14.17Visual Instruction Discuss the rela-tionship between Eysenck’s personal-ity dimensions and Galen’s fourtemperaments. For example,Eysenck’s extraverted, unstable typeis similar to Galen’s choleric type.

Caption Answer leadership, carefree,lively, easygoing, responsive, talkative,outgoing, sociable

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 14-5 Trait Theories

Directions: Use the clues below to complete the puzzle.

4

7

1

3

6

2

5


Introverts tend to be motivatedfrom within and are more orientedtoward reflection and ideas. Extra-verts tend to direct their attentionoutward and gain their motivationfrom outside sources. They alsotend to look for meaning outsidethemselves.

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different research studies. Often called the “fiverobust factors,” or “the big five,” they are:

• Extraversion, which is associated withwarmth, talkativeness, and being energetic.The opposite of this dimension is introver-sion, meaning being quiet or reserved.

• Agreeableness, which involves being sympa-thetic to others, kind, and trusting; the oppo-site is cruel and nontrusting.

• Conscientiousness, which identifies individualswho are dutiful, dedicated to completingtasks, organized, and responsible.

• Openness to experience, which describes peoplewho are open-minded and willing to tryintellectual experiences, new ideas, or cre-ative experiences.

• Emotional stability, which identifies individualswho experience things relatively easily andwithout getting upset. The opposite is neuroti-cism—a tendency to experience unpleasantemotions a great deal of the time. (John, 1990;Costa, McCrae, & Dye, 1991)

Think of each big-five trait as a continuum. Eachtrait has many related traits. For example, conscien-

tiousness at one end includes being responsible anddependable. On the other end, though, it involves being

impulsive or careless.Trait theorists assume that traits are relatively fixed, or

unchanging. The advantage of trait theories is that by identify-ing a person’s personality traits, that person’s behavior can be pre-

dicted. However, critics argue that trait theories describe personalityrather than explain it. Trait theorists cannot explain or predict behaviorsacross different situations. For example, a person may be quiet andreserved in class but outgoing and wild at a party. Why? Critics of traittheories propose that personality is an interaction between a person’straits and the effects of being in a particular situation. For example,whereas most theories of personality consider the person as an individ-ual, some psychologists regard personality as a function of a person’ssocial environment. One of the first of these thinkers was Harry StackSullivan (1892–1949).

Sullivan’s ideas have been organized into a two-dimensional model.One dimension is power, which ranges from dominance at one end of thescale to submissiveness at the other. The second dimension is friendliness,which ranges from friendliness to hostility. Most behaviors can bedescribed as a combination of these two dimensions. For example, help-fulness is a combination of dominance and friendliness, while trust is acombination of submissiveness and friendliness.

Do we see ourselves as otherssee us?Some personality theorists talk about extra-version versus introversion as being a basicpart of personality. Do people exhibit thesetraits in all situations? Are these traits easilyidentified?

Procedure1. Choose five people (family members,

friends, or acquaintances) and observetheir behavior in several situations.

2. Record your observations by classifyingeach person as extraverted, introverted, ora combination of both.

3. Ask the five people whether they wouldconsider themselves extraverted or intro-verted, and then record their responses.

Analysis1. What do your results tell you about

extraversion and introversion as person-ality traits? Are people extraverted orintroverted in all situations all the time?

2. What do your results tell you about people’s own perceptions of their personality versus the perceptions of others? What might account for any differences?

See the Skills Handbook,page 622, for an

explanation of designing an experiment.



Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 14-5 Trait Theories

Column A

1. outgoing, active, directs energy toward other people

2. reserved, withdrawn, preoccupied with inner thoughts andfeelings

3. a type of analysis used to identify why personality variablesare related

4. interact with the environment to influence behavior

5. tendency to react to a situation in a way that remains stableover time

Column B

A. factor

B. genetic factors

C. trait

D. extrovert

E. introvert

Matching


Section Quiz 14–5

Which Are You? Share the following descriptions with the class. Extravert:(1) needs and likes to be with people; (2) energizes self through interaction with others; (3)needs and wants many friends; (4) interested in what is happening in the external world; (5)tends to be expressive; (6) tolerates criticism well; and (7) eager to jump into new situations.Introvert: (1) needs to have “space” (territorial); (2) energizes self by being alone; (3) limitsfriendships; (4) interested in internal reactions; (5) tends to be hesitant to express ideas/feelings; (6) takes criticism personally; and (7) often reluctant to jump into new situations. Ask: According to these trait descriptions, are you an extravert or an introvert? Or does itdepend upon the situation you are in? Explain. L2


Purpose Students will explore howpersonality traits may be viewed differently.

Process Skills Designing an experi-ment, classifying information

Teaching Strategies ■ Review the procedures to be used.■ Participants should understand

what the terms introversion andextraversion mean.

Analysis1. Answers will vary. Most students

will note that these traits are oppo-site extremes and that most peo-ple a little of both.

2. Answers will vary. Students maynote that the way we think aboutourselves cannot be observed byothers and that our actions do notalways match our feelings or ourview of ourselves.

ReteachHave students select one of theirfavorite movie or television charactersand rate that character using the fiverobust factors. Ask volunteers to sharetheir descriptions with the class with-out naming the character. See if theclass can guess the character basedon the description.

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Researchers also noticed that a person’s actions tend to elicit specificresponses from other people. A behavior and its most likely response aresaid to be complementary. For example, most people will respond to arequest for help (trusting) by offering advice (helping), regardless of howhelpful they are as individuals. Thus, many behaviors result not simplyfrom a person’s personality but also from that person’s social environment.


Theories of PersonalityTheories of personality are used to organize personality characteris-tics, explain differences among individuals, explore how people con-duct their lives, and determine how life can be improved. Which the-ory do you think best describes your personality? Explain.

Figure 14.18

Theory Main Ideas

Behaviorist Theories focus on the way rewards and punishment shape our actions

Social Learning cognitive-personal factors, our behaviors, and environmental factors interact toTheories shape our personalities

Psychoanalytic emphasize the importance of early childhood experiences, repressed thoughts, andTheories conflict between conscious and unconscious forces

Cognitive Theories our analysis of our own perceptions, thoughts, and feelings shape our personalities

Humanistic Theories emphasize our capacity for personal growth, development of our full potential, and freedom to make choices

Trait Theories focus on identifying, measuring, and classifying similarities and differences in per-sonality characteristics or traits

1. Review the Vocabulary What is thedifference between cardinal and centraltraits? Between surface and sourcetraits?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a dia-gram similar to the one below, list thetraits that make up each of Eysenck’sthree dimensions of personality.

3. Recall Information What is the impor-tance of common traits in Cattell’s theory? What are Cattell’s source traits?

4. Think Critically Do the five factors ofpersonality in the five robust factorsdescribe you? If not, what other charac-teristics would you want to add?

Assessment

5. Application Activity Choose a character in amovie or television show you have recentlyseen. Describe the character in terms of the per-sonality dimensions proposed by one of the traittheorists discussed in this section.

Eysenck’s Dimensionsof Personality



Figure 14.18Visual Instruction Assign students toprovide a summary of one of the per-sonality theories presented here.

Caption Answer Answers will vary.Students are likely to choose trait the-ories because they provide cleardescriptions of personality, withoutattempting to explain personality.

EnrichAssign pairs of students to observepeople in a busy, public place such asa mall or park. Have them identifyextraverts and introverts by simpleobservation. Ask: What behaviors didyou use to identify someone as anintrovert or an extravert?

4 CLOSEHave students review literary charac-ters they have studied to associatecardinal traits with characters in litera-ture. For example, Peter Pan may beassociated with being carefree andScrooge with being stingy.

1. A central trait is a characteristic that best describes aperson, while a cardinal trait is so all-encompassingthat it becomes an identifier for the person. Surfacetraits are characteristics that can be observed in certainsituations. Source traits are characteristics consideredto be at the core of the personality.

2. stability vs. instability, extraversion vs. introversion, andpsychoticism vs. empathetic (socially sensitive)

3. Common traits are traits shared by all people. Source

traits are the major traits that define one’s personalityand can be used to predict behavior.

4. Students’ answers will vary. These will describe largeparts of students’ personalities, but students may iden-tify other dimensions they consider important.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Encourage students toselect characters that have been well-developed by thewriters. Challenge students to give specific examples ofthe character’s personality dimensions.


Going FurtherPersonality and Psychology

People differ from one another inmany obvious ways. Psychologistsinterested in personality study thedifferences and similarities amongpeople. They ask if characteristics of human nature are shared amongall peoples. They study patterns and dimensions of personality andidentify individual differences. Thesepsychologists look for biological andenvironmental factors that influencepersonality. About half of our person-ality is attributed to genetics. Theother half is influenced by social,ethnic, and cultural components.

Personality research extends toexamining cognitive abilities, interper-sonal styles, and how emotions areexpressed. The research seeks tofind useful models to measure per-sonality traits and degrees of differ-ences among people. The researchcenters on three questions:

1. How do people differ?2. Can differences in one situation be

used to predict differences inother situations?

3. How can theories of personality dif-ferences be tested and meas-ured?

By answering these questions, per-sonality theorists seek to clearly dis-tinguish personality disorders fromindividual differences.

Discussing the Case StudyAsk: What is a personality disorder?Why was Dan’s personality disorderdifficult to diagnose?

404


and died and I went to his funeral. Everybodyelse was crying and feeling sorry for them-selves and as they were praying to get him intoheaven, I suddenly realized that I wasn’t feel-ing anything at all. He was a nice guy but whatthe hell. That night I thought about it somemore and found that I wouldn’t miss my motherand father if they died and that I wasn’t toonuts about my brothers and sisters for thatmatter. I figured there wasn’t anybody I reallycared for but, then, I didn’t need any of themanyway so I rolled over and went to sleep.

(Davison & Neale, 2001)

Results: This description detail-ing the absence of emotion clearlyindicated the possibility of a per-sonality disorder. The Diagnosticand Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV)defines a personality disorder as an

enduring pattern of inner experienceand behavior that differs significantly

from the individual’s culture, is extensiveand inflexible, has an onset in adolescence

or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leadsto distress or impairment. An individual with apersonality disorder is often capable of func-tioning normally in society, including holding ajob, maintaining some personal relationships,and, on some occasions, showing signs of emo-tions. This is what makes discovering a person-ality disorder so difficult.

Dan’s unusual behavior may have goneunnoticed for so long because his occupationsrequired a person to behave a certain way.Unfortunately, it is not always easy to actuallyknow if a person is acting out a role or display-ing his or her own personality traits. In Dan’scase, his role was his personality.

PersonalityDisorderPeriod of Study: 1967

Introduction: An actor and radio disc jockey,Dan was highly successful in his professionalroles, which required an entertaining andextremely outspoken personality. AlthoughDan had to maintain these personalitytraits at work, sometimes traces ofthose traits leaked out into his privatelife. In one situation while Dan and afriend dined at a restaurant, Danexplicitly and loudly complainedabout the condition of the food. Inactuality, according to Dan’s friend,the food was fine—there was novalid reason for Dan’s public display.

Dan’s friend, psychologist EltonMcNeil, described Dan’s reactions asinappropriate. When McNeil asked Dan why hehad acted that way, Dan said he did it because“he wanted to show how gutless the rest of theworld is.” Dan then said acting like that separatesthe classy people from the ordinary and that thenext time he eats at that restaurant, he will betreated well. Concerned by his friend’s state-ments, McNeil asked Dan if he felt guilty at allabout treating his fellow human beings that way.Dan’s answer was, “Who cares?”

Hypothesis: For those of us who are familiarwith actors and radio disc jockeys, we know thattheir jobs require straightforward and sometimesconfrontational behavior. An excess of thesetraits, though, can prove to be too muchfor healthy functioning in life.

Method: McNeil encouraged his friendto take part in some sort of counseling ortherapy. Dan agreed. During a therapysession, Dan disclosed:

I can remember the first time in my life when I began to suspect I was a littledifferent from most people. When I was inhigh school my best friend got leukemia

Analyzing the Case Study 1. Why did McNeil encourage Dan to enter therapy?

2. Why do psychologists consider Dan’s behavior a dis-order rather than just a personality type?

3. Critical Thinking Does everyone’s personality changedepending on the role they are playing (for instance, asstudent, friend, son, or daughter)? Explain.

Case StudiesCase Studies

Answers for Analyzing the Case Study 1. He encouraged Dan to enter therapy to deal with per-

sonality issues and behaviors that were affecting howDan related to those around him. He questioned Dan’slack of emotions for other people.

2. Dan’s behavior varied significantly from the acceptedcultural norm and led to an impairment in his relation-ships with others. Dan’s absence of emotion clearlypointed to the presence of a personality disorder. Like

many people with a personality disorder, Dan was ableto function in society, including holding a job, maintain-ing some personal relationships, and showing someemotions.

3. One’s basic personality does not change; however,one’s behavior may change to fit the situation. Certainpersonality traits may be more obvious in certain situations.

405

Summary and Vocabulary

Chapter Vocabularypersonality (p. 375)unconscious (p. 379)id (p. 379)ego (p. 380)superego (p. 380)defense mechanisms (p. 380)collective unconscious (p. 384)archetype (p. 384)inferiority complex (p. 385)behaviorism (p. 387)contingencies of reinforcement(p. 388)humanistic psychology (p. 392)self-actualization (p. 392)self (p. 395)positive regard (p. 395)conditions of worth (p. 395)unconditional positive regard(p. 396)fully functioning (p. 396)trait (p. 398)cardinal trait (p. 400)factor analysis (p. 401)surface trait (p. 401)source trait (p. 401)extravert (p. 401)introvert (p. 401)

Purposes of Personality Theories■ Personality theorists try to organize traits by

similarities and differences, explore how peoplecope with life situations, and how people growand change.

Psychologists have proposed various theories of personality. Thetheories attempt to help explain similarities and to provide rea-sons for differences in personality.

Main Idea: Personalitytheories provide a wayof organizing the manycharacteristics that people have.

Psychoanalytic Theories■ Sigmund Freud believed that every personality has

an unconscious component and that childhoodexperiences, even if not consciously recalled, con-tinue to influence people’s behaviors.

■ The id, ego, and superego explain how the mindfunctions and how instinctual energies are regulated.

Main Idea: Freud’spsychoanalytic theoryproposes that person-ality is made up of threecomponents: the id, ego,and superego.

Learning Theories■ Behaviorists believe that as individuals differ in

their learning experiences, they acquire differentbehaviors and different personalities.

■ Albert Bandura believed that personality isacquired not only by reinforcement but also byobservational learning.

Main Idea: Behav-iorists are interested inhow aspects of person-ality are learned.


Humanistic and Cognitive Theories■ Humanistic psychology is founded on the belief

that all human beings strive for self-actualization.■ Carl Rogers believed that many people suffer from

a conflict between what they value in themselvesand what they believe other people value in them.

Main Idea: Humanisticand cognitive theories ofpersonality stress thepositive aspects ofhuman nature.

Trait Theories■ Trait theorists believe we understand people by

specifying their traits, and we use traits to predictpeople’s future behavior.

■ Gordon W. Allport defined common traits asthose that apply to everyone and individual traitsas those that apply more to a specific person.

Main Idea: Trait theo-rists believe that charac-ter traits account forconsistency of behaviorin different situations.

Using the Chapter 14 Summary and VocabularyUse the Chapter 14 Summary andVocabulary to preview, review, con-dense, or reteach the chapter.

Preview/ReviewUse the Chapter Vocabulary list tohelp students review and study.

Activity Ask students to write thevocabulary terms on index cards orpieces of paper. Have them write thedefinition on the opposite side. Askstudents to select those terms thatare related to one of the personalitytheories. Then have them group theterms with the correct personality theory.

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROMreinforces the vocabulary terms usedin Chapter 14.

CondenseHave students read the Chapter 14Summary.

Chapter 14 Guided ReadingActivities

ReteachReteaching Activity 14

Summary andVocabulary

Summary andVocabulary 14

Personality Masks Tell students that personality is derived from the Latin word persona—the term used to describe the masks worn in Greek theater. Roman actors adapted thesemasks, and they are still used today to identify the range of emotions portrayed in theater. Havestudents work in small groups to design at least four paper masks that convey particular person-ality types, or personas. Encourage students to think in relatively simple terms such as shy,angry, happy, and so on. Have the groups see if the rest of the class can identify each mask’spersonality trait. Ask students to select what they consider the two most important facial fea-tures used to convey the persona. BLOCK SCHEDULING

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

406

Assessment

Reviewing VocabularyChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

1. People who continuously try to compensate fortheir weakness and avoid feelings of inadequacyhave a(n) __________.

2. A(n)__________ is a person who is reserved,passive, and unsociable.

3. A(n)__________ is a tendency to react the sameway to different situations.

4. According to Carl Rogers, people require__________, or approval, from other people inorder to acquire a self.

5. Events that maintain certain behaviors arecalled __________.

6. __________ is composed of the consistent,enduring, and unique characteristics of a person.

7. When a person deceives herself into thinkingnothing is wrong instead of facing intense con-flict, she is using a(n)__________.

8. A(n)__________ is a person who is outgoingand lively.

9. According to humanistic psychologists, all peo-ple strive for __________, or the realization oftheir potentialities as unique human beings.

10. __________ is the term for the conditions peo-ple must meet in order to regard themselvespositively.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Understanding Psychology Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Self-CheckQuizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test.

a. personalityb. contingencies of

reinforcementc. traitd. defense mechanisme. inferiority complex

f. self-actualizationg. positive regardh. conditions of worthi. extravert j. introvert

Recalling Facts1. Using a graphic organizer similar to the one

below, list the “five robust factors” of personality.

2. How did Bandura and Walters believe personal-ity is acquired?

3. What technique might you be using if you thinka teacher is angry at you because he or she gavea difficult test, when in reality the teacher actu-ally is not angry?

4. According to Rogers, what situation creates agap between the person and the self?

5. What are the two basic assumptions behind traittheories?

Critical Thinking1. Synthesizing Information Imagine that you

have a friend who is failing several subjects inschool, does little homework, and fails to studyfor tests. Based on your knowledge of personal-ity theories, how would Skinner explain yourfriend’s behavior? How would Bandura explainthe behavior?

2. Making Inferences What would life be like ifpeople had only an id? An ego? A superego?

3. Analyzing Concepts Recall Freudian slips youhave seen or heard. Write them down and try todetermine the reasons for each slip.

4. Applying Concepts List the qualities and traitsthat you think comprise the self-actualized person.

5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Someopponents of the humanistic theory of personal-ity have criticized it for promoting the “me first”approach to living. They believe that the theoryencourages selfishness. Do you agree with thesecritics? Why or why not?

PSYCHOLOGY


The Robust Five

Reviewing Vocabulary1. e 6. a2. j 7. d3. c 8. i4. g 9. f 5. b 10. h

Recalling Facts1. Extraversion is associated with warmth, talk-

ativeness, and being energetic. Agreeable-ness involves being sympathetic, kind, andtrusting to others. Individuals who are con-scientious are dutiful, dedicated, organized,and responsible. People who are open-minded are willing to try new ideas andexperiences. Emotionally stable are thewords used to describe someone who expe-riences things relatively easily.

2. They believed personality is acquired byobservational learning or imitation as well asby direct reinforcement.

3. You would be using the defense mechanismsof regression, projection, or rationalization.

4. According to Rogers, placing conditions ofworth on an individual creates a gapbetween the person and the self.

5. The two basic assumptions are that everytrait applies to all people and that thesetrait descriptions can be quantified.

Critical Thinking1. Skinner would assume that your friend’s

behavior is being reinforced. He would rec-ommend discovering and changing the con-tingencies of reinforcement. Bandura wouldsuggest that your friend may have loweredhis or her expectations to the point that heor she has given up trying.

2. Answers will vary. Students’ answers shouldreflect an understanding of the threeFreudian components.

3. Answers will vary. Students should mention how uncon-scious thoughts slip through to the surface.

4. Again, answers will vary; but they should coincide withthe traits described on Maslow’s list.

5. Answers should include examples representing key con-cepts from the humanistic viewpoint as well as argu-ments against it.

Psychology Projects1. Encourage students to explore the full range of their per-

sonalities. You might explore whether the collages depictthe social “I,” the private “me,” or a combination of both.

2. Ask volunteers to share their ideas by explaining themyth or fairy tale and identifying the archetypes. As aclass, discuss how these archetypes represent commonhuman experiences or traits.

3. Descriptions will vary along with the theory and personchosen. The goal is to apply the theory as a tool ofanalysis.

PSYCHOLOGY

Have students visit the Web site atglencoe.com to review Chapter14 and take the Self-Check Quiz.

AssessmentAssessment14

For a review ofChapter 14 content,see MindJogger

Checkpoint on Presentation Plus!

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

407

Psychology Projects1. Purposes of Personality Theories Create a col-

lage that depicts your personality, using picturesand words from magazines and newspapers.Display your collage in class and explain whichtheory discussed best describes your personality.

2. Psychoanalytic Theories Archetypes are evi-dent in many myths and fairy tales. Choose amyth or fairy tale and identify the archetypes init and the common experiences of humanitythat these archetypes reflect.

3. Trait Theories Select a newspaper or newsmagazine article that describes the activities oraccomplishments of a person—for example, apopular sports figure, politician, or business-person. Then select one of the trait theories ofpersonality to describe the person’s behaviorand outlook on life. You may have to go beyondthe material in the article to make a convincingargument for the theory you have selected.Present your description in a report.

Technology ActivityThere are various personality testsavailable on the Internet. Locate the

Web sites of these tests. Report on the aspects ofpersonality that these tests address and evaluatehow well they do so. Share the Web addressesyou found with the class.

Psychology Journal 1. Analyze the entry in your journal youwrote at the beginning of the study of this

chapter. Now write another entry answeringthese questions: Does the person change behav-ior depending on the setting? What would yousay are important reinforcers for this person?Explain your observations using a behavioralmodel of personality.

2. In your journal, describe the theory of personal-ity that is most appealing to you. Which seemsto make the most sense? Why?

Assessment


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Practice and assess key socialstudies skills with Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2.

Building SkillsIdentifying Cause-and-Effect Relationships Reviewthe cartoon, then answer the questions that follow.

1. What does “Robert’s facade” refer to?2. What aspect of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of

personality is reflected in the cartoon?3. How might a behaviorist explain Robert’s

behavior?4. How might a trait theorist describe Robert’s

behavior?5. How might a humanistic psychologist, such as

Carl Rogers, explain Robert’s behavior?“We have to go now. Robert’s façade is beginning to crumble.”

See the Skills Handbook, page 624, for anexplanation of identifying cause-and-effectrelationships.

Building Skills1. Facade refers to a false or superficial

appearance. In this case, facade may referto Robert’s behavior or “act” in this socialsituation.

2. Answers may suggest that Robert’s uncon-scious motives or desires are surfacing.

3. A behaviorist may propose that certain con-tingencies of reinforcement or expectationsare influencing Robert’s behavior.

4. A trait theorist would identify the traits thatmake up Robert’s behavior, such as serious-ness and tenseness, and study Robert’sbehavior and personality across different sit-uations.

5. Carl Rogers would study Robert’s struggleand his obstacles to becoming a fully func-tioning individual. He may say that Robert isexperiencing a gap between person and self.

AssessmentAssessment

Technology ActivityStudents should be encouraged to compare several personal-ity tests. Remind them that many of these tests would notmeet the standards of reliability and validity described inChapter 13.

Psychology Journal1. Answers will vary. Remind students that changes in behav-

ior do not indicate changes in personality. The behavioralmodel would explain differences in terms of reinforcementsreceived or imitation of the behavior of others.

2. Encourage students to make reasoned arguments support-ing their choices.

This question may be used for extracredit on the Chapter Assessment.Answer the following question:A person steps outside and isstruck by a cold wind. The personreturns to the house and puts on acoat. Which of Freud’s principles isat work? Which personality processwas at work?Answer: reality principle; ego

Chapter BonusTest Question

CD-ROMGlencoe Skillbuilder Inter-active Workbook, Level 2

This interactive CD-ROM isdesigned to reinforce student mastery of essential social studiesskills.

408

Psychologist Gordon Allport presents the letters of Jenny Gove Masterson (andothers) as an intense case study of personality. JennyÕs letters trace a life of frus-tration and defeat. Between the ages of 58 and 70, Jenny wrote a series of 301letters to Glenn and Isabel, two young friends. The letters dramatically illustrateher relationship with her son Ross. Jenny tells of her interests, hates, fears, andconflicts. These letters have led many psychologists and students to seek toexplain Jenny’s behavior and her personality.

the old philanderer. It is as well for him to try his luckagain in matrimony—he can then take his other wifeto visit his “Beloved Mother” his “B.M.” as he did thefirst one, and they can all be happy together.

I have truly a noble son—an honor to hisCollege, his friends, his family. And all for what?Can it be possible all this is merely for the sake ofco-habiting with a woman who sells her body to thehighest bidder?

Oh! If he would only settle down for 2 or 3years and get a footing in business and not alwaysbelong to the “floating” population. He is not sovery old yet altho’ he has squandered 10 preciousyears. What in the world is the matter, Glenn dear?

I am not a charming person—not beautiful—not clever, but what of that? I carried him in mybody for 9 mos. was good to him for many years(you know that) altho’ he says I wasn’t—that it wasall selfishness on my part—but even granting all thatto be so—I am still his Mother. Oh! what is it that’sso wrong?

Be patient with me—I try you sadly—but I’malone, and it’s awful to be in the dark, and be alone.

I sincerely hope you are all well.

Jenny

P.S. Do not write to Ross about me. You wouldmean all right, of course, but Ross would be veryangry, and resent it dreadfully. He says you don’t“live”—don’t know what “life” is—sometimes Ithink he is a little “off ” and might kill me—heresents your having helped me, and my gratitude toIsabel and you.

Reader’s Dictionary

philanderer: one who has many love affairs

enigma: a mystery

408 Unit 5 / Personality and Individuality

R E A D I N G S I N P S Y C H O L O G YR E A D I N G S I N P S Y C H O L O G Y

E D I T E D A N D I N T E R P R E T E D B Y

G O R D O N W . A L L P O R T

Friday, April 19/29Dear Glenn:

I’m afraid that I am quite a nuisance in shovingmy affairs on Isabel and you, but when you remem-ber the compact we made that time I was inChicago, and all your care over me since, you willpardon. You are my only confidant.

My motive in telling you all this is not to gossip,or backbite, but because I know that when I dropout Ross will lie to you and make it appear thatthings were quite different with us. . . .

The chances are that Ross and I are again nearthe parting of the ways. He has never cared anythingat all for me since he adopted, and was adopted by,

L E T T E R SF R O MJ E NNY

Readings inPsychologyReadings inPsychology

Reinforcing VocabularyReview the Reader’s Dictionary termswith students to be sure they under-stand any unfamiliar items.

Background InformationGordon Allport focused on the obvi-

ous elements of personality, not wor-rying about the unconscious. His earlytests of personality traits involved giv-ing people situations and having themselect their most likely response. All-port found that people exhibit similartraits in a variety of situations. Forexample, if a person is generouswhen he or she encounters a home-less person, he or she is also likely tobe generous when inheriting a largesum of money.

Allport used the dictionary to iden-tify a list of personality traits anddescriptions. He eventually narrowedhis list to 4,500 traits and 200groups of traits. This list proved tooextensive to use for studying person-ality traits. Researchers like RaymondCattell narrowed the list to more man-ageable numbers. Cattell grouped per-sonality traits into 16 traitdimensions. He used these 16 traitdimensions to predict people’s behav-ior in certain situations.

This activity works well for a block-scheduling framework.

ADDITIONAL READINGS ABOUT THE TOPICAxline, V. (1964). Dibs in Search of Self. NewYork: Ballantine.

Harary, K., & Donahue, E. (1994). Who Do YouThink You Are? Explore Your Many-Sided Selfwith the Berkeley Personality Profile. San Fran-cisco: Harper.

Heatherton, T.F., & Weinberger, J.L. (Eds.)(1997). Can Personality Change? AmericanPsychological Association.

Wiggins, J.S. (Ed.) (1996). The Five-FactorModel of Personality: Theoretical Perspectives.Guilford Press.

409

E x c e r p t s f r o m a l e t t e r w r i t t e n b y R o s s t o G l e n n :

April 21, 1929

Your last letter was the one about Mother. Iappreciate your interest and your desire to help methat I might help her. And yet, in a word, your letter merely emphasized my own feeling of frustra-tion and futility. I’m afraid there is little one can do,or that I can do, to be a comfort and service of anyreal or lasting pleasure.

Mother has entrenched herself behind truths,half-truths, and utter fabrications concerning my limitations as the ideal son, and there is no dislodging her. No amount of evendemonstrating my presence willchange her constant reiterationthat I am entirely bad and havecast her off in her old age. . . . Dayand night, Mother recites herown good deeds to her family, herfriends, her husband, her son, andhow each in turn failed to pay herback. . . .

F r o m I s a b e l [ 2 7 y e a r s a f t e r J e n n y ’ s d e a t h ]

Dear Mr. Editor:

It is now twenty-seven years since JennyMasterson died. You have asked me to re-read herLetters addressed to Glenn and myself, and in thisperspective to make comments and interpretationsconcerning her tortured life.

Her Letters bring back many memories, buteven in the perspective of years I cannot pretend todiscover the key to her nature. Our relationship toher was essentially “neutral.” We took pains not tobecome too deeply involved, but we alwaysanswered her communications and tried to helpher in emergencies.

Her behavior, like the Letters, was intense, dramatic, and sometimes “hard to take.” But to usher nature posed a challenge to understanding.What made her so intense, so vivid, so difficult?Even now her communications arouse in me asense of the enigma of her personality as well assympathy for her predicament. . . .

So we know that early in her life Jenny showedsome of the factors evident in the Letters: heraloneness, her intense individuality and dramatiza-tion, her temper and tendency to quarrel. She wasa puzzle to her family, and socially a problem longbefore we knew her. But to me the enigma is howshe came to be such a problem to herself as well asto others. . . .

This self-defeating formula was with her fromearly years. At the age of 70 she is “the same onlymore so.”. . .

Unit 5 / Personality and Individuality 409

Analyzing the Reading

1. What personality traits does Jenny display?2. How does Ross view his mother?3. Critical Thinking Isabel writes that Jenny’s personality did not

change as she aged, but became more difficult. Do you thinkthat it is possible for a person to change his or her personality?Explain.

Answers to Analyzing the Reading1. Answers will vary. Traits may include anxious, insecure,

emotional, self-pitying, irritable, rude, and rigid.2. He views her as a difficult person whose ideal he can-

not live up to. Students may note that Ross feels frus-trated because he believes there is little he can do tochange how his mother feels and acts toward him. Ross

feels that his mother has deluded herself and will notchange her perceptions of him.

3. Answers will vary. Most researchers view personality as relatively set by the time we reach adulthood.Encourage students to explain their reasoning by usingexamples.

Readings inPsychology

Readings inPsychology

Psychology JournalHave students write a letter to

a psychologist describing someonewhose actions and personality theydo not understand. ■

Explain to students that pausing to review during reading improvescomprehension. It also gives them an opportunity to revise or updatetheir ideas about the purpose, mainidea, and supporting details of theselection.

Remind students that one goal ofpsychologists is to influence thebehavior of their clients. For aperson like Jenny, a clinical orcounseling psychologist couldhelp her change her destructivebehaviors. Of course, Jenny wouldfirst have to desire to makechanges in her life.

chapter 14 resource guidechapter 14 resource guide 374a activities that are particularly suited for...

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