Time Study: RatingTime Study: Rating

CHAPTER 13CHAPTER 13

Assessing the effective speed of working of the operator relative to Assessing the effective speed of working of the operator relative to the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard rating.the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard rating.

Most time studies in industry are used to determine standard times Most time studies in industry are used to determine standard times for setting workloads and also as a basis for incentive plans. for setting workloads and also as a basis for incentive plans.

Rating (the assessment of a worker’s rate of working) and the Rating (the assessment of a worker’s rate of working) and the allowances to be given for recovery from fatigue. allowances to be given for recovery from fatigue.

The qualified workerThe qualified worker

Time studies should be made on a number of qualified workers; and Time studies should be made on a number of qualified workers; and very fast or very slow workers should be avoided. very fast or very slow workers should be avoided.

Different jobs require different human abilities. Different jobs require different human abilities. For exampleFor example, some , some demand mental awareness, concentration, visual perception; others, demand mental awareness, concentration, visual perception; others, physical strength; some acquired skill or special knowledge. physical strength; some acquired skill or special knowledge.

A qualified workerA qualified worker is one who has acquired the skill, knowledge and is one who has acquired the skill, knowledge and other attributes to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory other attributes to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of quantity, quality and safetystandards of quantity, quality and safety

A A representative workerrepresentative worker is defined as one whose skill and is defined as one whose skill and performance is the average of a group under consideration and who performance is the average of a group under consideration and who is not necessarily a qualified worker.is not necessarily a qualified worker.

The “average” workerThe “average” workerIf 500 qualified workers in a given factory do the same operation by the same methods If 500 qualified workers in a given factory do the same operation by the same methods and under the same conditions, the whole operation are within the control of the and under the same conditions, the whole operation are within the control of the workers themselves, the times taken to perform the operation would be distributed in workers themselves, the times taken to perform the operation would be distributed in the figure belowthe figure below

Standard rating and standard performanceStandard rating and standard performance

The principal use of work measurement is to set time standards which can be The principal use of work measurement is to set time standards which can be used for a number of different purposes (including program planning, used for a number of different purposes (including program planning, estimating and as a basis for incentives) for the various jobs. estimating and as a basis for incentives) for the various jobs.

It would be no use setting standards so high that only the best ones could It would be no use setting standards so high that only the best ones could attain them, since programs or estimates based on them that would never be attain them, since programs or estimates based on them that would never be fulfilled. fulfilled.

to set standards well within the achievement of the slowest workers would not to set standards well within the achievement of the slowest workers would not be contributing to efficiency.be contributing to efficiency.

How does the work study person obtain such a fair time from time How does the work study person obtain such a fair time from time studies?studies?

Studies should be taken on qualified workers. If it were possible to obtain the Studies should be taken on qualified workers. If it were possible to obtain the times taken by 500 qualified operators for a single operation and plot them in times taken by 500 qualified operators for a single operation and plot them in the manner shown in figure 106, a reliable average time would be obtained. the manner shown in figure 106, a reliable average time would be obtained.

It is not always possible to time a job on an average qualified worker; It is not always possible to time a job on an average qualified worker; moreover, even if it were, people do not work consistently from day to day or moreover, even if it were, people do not work consistently from day to day or even from minute to minute. even from minute to minute.

The work study person has to have some means of assessing the rate of The work study person has to have some means of assessing the rate of working of the operator he is observing and relating it to standard pace. This working of the operator he is observing and relating it to standard pace. This process is known as rating.process is known as rating.

Rating is the assessment of the worker’s rate of working relative to Rating is the assessment of the worker’s rate of working relative to the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard pace.the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard pace.

By definition, rating is a comparison of the rate of working observed by the work By definition, rating is a comparison of the rate of working observed by the work study person with a picture of some standard level in mind. study person with a picture of some standard level in mind.

This standard level is the average rate at which qualified workers will naturally This standard level is the average rate at which qualified workers will naturally work at a job, when using the correct method and apply it to their work. work at a job, when using the correct method and apply it to their work.

This rate of working corresponds to the standard rating, and is denoted by 100 on This rate of working corresponds to the standard rating, and is denoted by 100 on the recommended rating scale. the recommended rating scale.

Standard performanceStandard performance is the rate of output which qualified workers will naturally is the rate of output which qualified workers will naturally achieve without over-exertion as an average over the working day or shift. This achieve without over-exertion as an average over the working day or shift. This performance is denoted as 100 on the standard rating and performance scales.performance is denoted as 100 on the standard rating and performance scales.

The rate of working most generally accepted in the United Kingdom and the United The rate of working most generally accepted in the United Kingdom and the United States, corresponding to the standard rating is equivalent to the speed of motion States, corresponding to the standard rating is equivalent to the speed of motion of the limbs of a man of average figure walking without a load in a straight line on of the limbs of a man of average figure walking without a load in a straight line on level ground at a speed of 4 miles an hour (6.4 kilometers per hour). level ground at a speed of 4 miles an hour (6.4 kilometers per hour).

This is a fast, business-like rate of walking, which a man of the right physique and This is a fast, business-like rate of walking, which a man of the right physique and well accustomed to walking might be expected to maintain, provided that he took well accustomed to walking might be expected to maintain, provided that he took appropriate rest pauses every so often. appropriate rest pauses every so often.

This pace has been selected, as a result of long experience, as providing a suitable This pace has been selected, as a result of long experience, as providing a suitable benchmark to correspond to a rate of working which would allow the average benchmark to correspond to a rate of working which would allow the average qualified worker who is prepared to apply himself to his task to earn a fair bonus qualified worker who is prepared to apply himself to his task to earn a fair bonus by working at that rate.by working at that rate.

The effect of the elimination of these small periods of ineffective time under The effect of the elimination of these small periods of ineffective time under the influence of an incentive can be illustrated diagrammatically (figure 107).the influence of an incentive can be illustrated diagrammatically (figure 107).

The effect of putting a whole working area or a plant (such as the 500 workers in figure 106) on an The effect of putting a whole working area or a plant (such as the 500 workers in figure 106) on an incentive is shown in figure 108. Offering an incentive in the form of payment in proportion to output incentive is shown in figure 108. Offering an incentive in the form of payment in proportion to output will not make the unskilled or slow worker as fast or as skilled or naturally fast worker; but if will not make the unskilled or slow worker as fast or as skilled or naturally fast worker; but if everyone in the working area is put on a well-designed incentive plan, other conditions remaining the everyone in the working area is put on a well-designed incentive plan, other conditions remaining the same, the result will be that everyone will tend to work more consistently. The normal distribution same, the result will be that everyone will tend to work more consistently. The normal distribution curve shown in figure 106 will move to the left while retaining approximately the same shape. curve shown in figure 106 will move to the left while retaining approximately the same shape.

What is rated?What is rated? The purpose of rating is to determine the standard time which can be The purpose of rating is to determine the standard time which can be

maintained by the average qualified worker and which can be used as a maintained by the average qualified worker and which can be used as a realistic basis for planning, control and incentive schemes. realistic basis for planning, control and incentive schemes.

What the study person is concerned with is therefore the speed with which the What the study person is concerned with is therefore the speed with which the operator carries out the work, in relation to the study person’s concept of a operator carries out the work, in relation to the study person’s concept of a normal speed. Speed of what? normal speed. Speed of what?

Certainly not just speed of movement, because an unskilled operator may Certainly not just speed of movement, because an unskilled operator may move extremely fast and yet take longer to perform an operation than a skilled move extremely fast and yet take longer to perform an operation than a skilled operative who appears to be working quite slowly. operative who appears to be working quite slowly.

The only thing that counts is the effective speed of the operation. Judgment of The only thing that counts is the effective speed of the operation. Judgment of effective speed can only be acquired through experience and knowledge of the effective speed can only be acquired through experience and knowledge of the operations being observed. Should effort be rated, and if so, how? operations being observed. Should effort be rated, and if so, how?

The problem arises as soon as it becomes necessary to study jobs other than The problem arises as soon as it becomes necessary to study jobs other than very light work where little muscular effort is required. Effort is very difficult to very light work where little muscular effort is required. Effort is very difficult to rate. rate.

Operations involving mental activities (for example, judgment of finish in Operations involving mental activities (for example, judgment of finish in inspection of work) are most difficult to assess. inspection of work) are most difficult to assess.

Factors affecting the rate of workingFactors affecting the rate of working Differences in actual times for a particular element may be due to factors Differences in actual times for a particular element may be due to factors

outside or within the control of the workeroutside or within the control of the worker. .

Factors outside of the operator’s controlFactors outside of the operator’s control may be: may be:

differences in the quality or other characteristics of the material used, although differences in the quality or other characteristics of the material used, although they may be within the prescribed tolerance limits;they may be within the prescribed tolerance limits;

changes in the operating efficiency of tools or equipment within their useful life;changes in the operating efficiency of tools or equipment within their useful life; minor and unavoidable changes in methods or conditions of operation;minor and unavoidable changes in methods or conditions of operation; differences in the mental attention necessary for the performance of certain differences in the mental attention necessary for the performance of certain

elements;elements; changes in climatic and other surrounding conditions such as light, changes in climatic and other surrounding conditions such as light,

temperature, etc.temperature, etc.

Factors within the operator’s controlFactors within the operator’s control may be: may be:

acceptable differences in the quality of the product;acceptable differences in the quality of the product; differences due to the individual’s ability;differences due to the individual’s ability; differences due to the attitude of mind, especially the attitude to the differences due to the attitude of mind, especially the attitude to the

organization for which he works. organization for which he works.

Scales of ratingScales of rating

The 0 -100 scales has, however, certain important advantages which The 0 -100 scales has, however, certain important advantages which have led to its adoption as the British Standard. have led to its adoption as the British Standard.

How the rating factor is usedHow the rating factor is used

It is usual practice to round off ratings to the nearest multiple of five on It is usual practice to round off ratings to the nearest multiple of five on the scale; that is to say, if the rate is judged to be 13 per cent above the scale; that is to say, if the rate is judged to be 13 per cent above standard, it would be put down at 115. standard, it would be put down at 115.

If the study person’s ratings were always perfect, however many times If the study person’s ratings were always perfect, however many times an element were rated and timed, the results should be that:an element were rated and timed, the results should be that:

Observed time x rating = a constantObserved time x rating = a constant

Provided that the element is of the type described as a constant Provided that the element is of the type described as a constant element and that it is always performed in the same way. element and that it is always performed in the same way.

An example, expressed numerically, might read as follows:An example, expressed numerically, might read as follows:

In the figures above, 0.20 x 100 is shown as equal to 0.20 rather than In the figures above, 0.20 x 100 is shown as equal to 0.20 rather than 20. It must be remembered that rating does not stand by itself: 20. It must be remembered that rating does not stand by itself:

In the case of the 100 standard this makes it a percentage which, when In the case of the 100 standard this makes it a percentage which, when multiplied by the observed time, produces the constant known as the multiplied by the observed time, produces the constant known as the “basic time” for the element.“basic time” for the element.

This basic time (0.20 minutes in the example) represents the time the This basic time (0.20 minutes in the example) represents the time the elements would take to perform (in the judgment of the observer) if the elements would take to perform (in the judgment of the observer) if the operator were working at the standard rate, instead of the faster one operator were working at the standard rate, instead of the faster one actually observed.actually observed.

If the operator was judged to be working more slowly than the standard, If the operator was judged to be working more slowly than the standard, a basic time less than the observed time would be arrived at, for a basic time less than the observed time would be arrived at, for example:example:

Time study: From study to standard timeTime study: From study to standard time

Basic time is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard Basic time is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard rating, i. erating, i. e..

Observed time x observed ratingObserved time x observed rating ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Standard ratingStandard rating

Extension is the calculation of basic time from observed timeExtension is the calculation of basic time from observed time

The selected timeThe selected time

TheThe selected time selected time isis the time chosen as being representative of a the time chosen as being representative of a group of times for an element or group of elements.group of times for an element or group of elements.

The effect of extending an observed time for an element to the basic The effect of extending an observed time for an element to the basic time is shown graphically in figure 109 below.time is shown graphically in figure 109 below.

Constant ElementConstant Element

There are various methods of examining and selecting the representative basic There are various methods of examining and selecting the representative basic time for a constant element. time for a constant element.

Perhaps the most common by making a straight average of the element times Perhaps the most common by making a straight average of the element times arrived at, adding all the calculated basic times together and dividing the total by arrived at, adding all the calculated basic times together and dividing the total by the number of occasions on which the element was recorded. the number of occasions on which the element was recorded.

During a time study made on the During a time study made on the operation of inspecting and covering a bookoperation of inspecting and covering a book, one , one element was described as: “element was described as: “Pick up one bookPick up one book, , inspectinspect, , initial back end of paperinitial back end of paper (break point: book closed)”. (break point: book closed)”.

This element was observed 31 times, and the basic minutes calculated were as This element was observed 31 times, and the basic minutes calculated were as shown below:shown below:

It will be seen that one figure has been ringed — the basic time of 0.49 minutes which arose It will be seen that one figure has been ringed — the basic time of 0.49 minutes which arose when a when a faulty book was come acrossfaulty book was come across, examined and rejected. , examined and rejected.

Excluding this figure, the total of the remaining 30 basic times is 7.97 minutes, which yields Excluding this figure, the total of the remaining 30 basic times is 7.97 minutes, which yields an average of 0.266 minutes per occasion. an average of 0.266 minutes per occasion.

At this stage in the study work the figure 264 would be entered on the study summary At this stage in the study work the figure 264 would be entered on the study summary sheet and be carried to the analysis of studies sheet; but at the end of the calculations for sheet and be carried to the analysis of studies sheet; but at the end of the calculations for the element, the basic time finally selected would be rounded off to the nearest two figures the element, the basic time finally selected would be rounded off to the nearest two figures — in this case 0.27 minutes. — in this case 0.27 minutes.

The excess work observed in observation (0.49 - 0.27 = 0.22) would be carried down to the The excess work observed in observation (0.49 - 0.27 = 0.22) would be carried down to the contingencies record.contingencies record.

When the total number of observations made on an element is relatively small, averaging When the total number of observations made on an element is relatively small, averaging usually gives a more accurate result than is available with other methods of selection. usually gives a more accurate result than is available with other methods of selection.

One method, which prevents the necessity for extending observed times to basic times, is One method, which prevents the necessity for extending observed times to basic times, is to tabulate the observed times for the element under the ratings recorded as to tabulate the observed times for the element under the ratings recorded as corresponding to each observation, so as to form a distribution table against ratings. corresponding to each observation, so as to form a distribution table against ratings.

The table can be compiled direct from the entries made on the time study sheets at the The table can be compiled direct from the entries made on the time study sheets at the workplace. For the element in the example above, the distribution table would appear as workplace. For the element in the example above, the distribution table would appear as follows:follows:

In the tabulation above, all the 30 observed times from which the In the tabulation above, all the 30 observed times from which the basic times shown in the earlier example were calculated are listed, basic times shown in the earlier example were calculated are listed, the one ringed observation having been excluded. the one ringed observation having been excluded.

The observed times are then totaled under each rating, and these The observed times are then totaled under each rating, and these totals are then extended by multiplying by the corresponding ratings, totals are then extended by multiplying by the corresponding ratings, to yield the basic times (totals) shown in the line below. to yield the basic times (totals) shown in the line below.

The grand total of all these basic times comes to 7.92 minutes, which, The grand total of all these basic times comes to 7.92 minutes, which, when divided by 30 (the number of observations) given the selected when divided by 30 (the number of observations) given the selected basic time for the element — 0.264 minutes. This may be compared basic time for the element — 0.264 minutes. This may be compared with the result of 0.266 minutes achieved by averaging the individual with the result of 0.266 minutes achieved by averaging the individual basic times.basic times.

Work contentWork content

The work content of a job or operation is defined asThe work content of a job or operation is defined as: :

Basic time + relaxation allowance + any allowance for additional work,Basic time + relaxation allowance + any allowance for additional work,

i.e., that part of contingency allowance which represents worki.e., that part of contingency allowance which represents work..

AllowancesAllowances Many jobs require human effort, and some allowance must be made for recovery from Many jobs require human effort, and some allowance must be made for recovery from

fatigue for relaxation. Allowance must also be made to allow a worker to attend to fatigue for relaxation. Allowance must also be made to allow a worker to attend to personal needs; and other allowances (e.g. contingency allowances) may also have to personal needs; and other allowances (e.g. contingency allowances) may also have to be added to the basic time in order to give the work content.be added to the basic time in order to give the work content.

The difficulty experienced in The difficulty experienced in preparing a universally accepted set of exact allowances preparing a universally accepted set of exact allowances that can be applied to every working situation anywhere in the world is due to various that can be applied to every working situation anywhere in the world is due to various reasonsreasons.. The most important among them are: The most important among them are:

Factors related to the individualFactors related to the individual. If every worker in a particular working area were . If every worker in a particular working area were to be considered individually, it might well be found that a thin, active, alert to be considered individually, it might well be found that a thin, active, alert worker at the peak (top) of physical condition required a smaller allowance to worker at the peak (top) of physical condition required a smaller allowance to recover from fatigue than a fat, incompetent (unskilled) worker. recover from fatigue than a fat, incompetent (unskilled) worker.

Factors related to the nature of the work itselfFactors related to the nature of the work itself. Many of the tables developed for . Many of the tables developed for the calculation of allowances give figures which may be acceptable for light and the calculation of allowances give figures which may be acceptable for light and medium work in industry but which are inadequate when applied to operations medium work in industry but which are inadequate when applied to operations involving very heavy and exhausting work. (i.e., furnaces in steel mills).involving very heavy and exhausting work. (i.e., furnaces in steel mills).

Examples of these factors areExamples of these factors are: whether a worker has to perform the work standing up : whether a worker has to perform the work standing up or sitting down, and position during work; whether force has to be used to move or or sitting down, and position during work; whether force has to be used to move or carry loads from one place to another; whether the work itself results in excessive eye carry loads from one place to another; whether the work itself results in excessive eye or mental strain, and so on. or mental strain, and so on.

Factors related to the environmentFactors related to the environment. . Particular relaxation allowances, have to be Particular relaxation allowances, have to be determined with due regard to various environmental factors such as heat, determined with due regard to various environmental factors such as heat, humidity, noise, dirt, vibration, lighting intensity, dust, wet conditions, etc. humidity, noise, dirt, vibration, lighting intensity, dust, wet conditions, etc.

Each of these will affect the amount of relaxation allowances needed. Each of these will affect the amount of relaxation allowances needed.

Calculation of allowancesCalculation of allowances The basic model for the calculation of allowances is shown in The basic model for the calculation of allowances is shown in

figure 113. It will be seen from this model that relaxation figure 113. It will be seen from this model that relaxation allowances (which are intended to assist recovery from fatigue) allowances (which are intended to assist recovery from fatigue) are the only essential part of the time added to the basic time. are the only essential part of the time added to the basic time.

Other allowances, such as contingency, policy and special Other allowances, such as contingency, policy and special allowances are applied under certain conditions only.allowances are applied under certain conditions only.

Relaxation allowanceRelaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time intended to is an addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker with the opportunity to recover from the provide the worker with the opportunity to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of carrying out specified physiological and psychological effects of carrying out specified work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs. needs.

The amount of allowance will depend on theThe amount of allowance will depend on the nature of the job.nature of the job.

Relaxation allowancesRelaxation allowances are calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from fatigue. are calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from fatigue.

FatigueFatigue may be defined as a physical and/or mental weariness, real or imagined, existing in a may be defined as a physical and/or mental weariness, real or imagined, existing in a person and harmfully affecting the ability to perform work. The effects of fatigue can be person and harmfully affecting the ability to perform work. The effects of fatigue can be lessened by rest pauses, during which the body recovers from its effort.lessened by rest pauses, during which the body recovers from its effort.

Allowances for fatigue are normally added element by element to the basic times, so that a Allowances for fatigue are normally added element by element to the basic times, so that a work value for each element is built up separately, the element standard times being work value for each element is built up separately, the element standard times being combined to give way the standard time for the whole job or operation. combined to give way the standard time for the whole job or operation.

In this way it is possible to deal with any extra allowance which may be required to In this way it is possible to deal with any extra allowance which may be required to compensate for severe climatic conditions, since the element may sometimes be compensate for severe climatic conditions, since the element may sometimes be performed in cool weather and sometimes when it is very hot. Relaxation allowances have performed in cool weather and sometimes when it is very hot. Relaxation allowances have two major components: two major components:

fixed allowancesfixed allowances and and variable allowancesvariable allowances..

Fixed allowances are composed ofFixed allowances are composed of::

Allowances for Allowances for personal needspersonal needs. This allowance provides for the necessity to leave the . This allowance provides for the necessity to leave the workplace to attend to personal needs such as washing, going to the bathroom or getting workplace to attend to personal needs such as washing, going to the bathroom or getting a drink. a drink.

Common figures applied by many enterprises range from 5 to 7 per cent.Common figures applied by many enterprises range from 5 to 7 per cent.

Allowances for Allowances for basic fatiguebasic fatigue. This allowance, always a constant, is given to take account . This allowance, always a constant, is given to take account of the energy expended while carrying out work and to lessen monotony. of the energy expended while carrying out work and to lessen monotony.

A common figure is A common figure is 4 per cent of basic time4 per cent of basic time. This is considered to be sufficient for a . This is considered to be sufficient for a worker who carries out the job while seated, who is engaged on light work in good worker who carries out the job while seated, who is engaged on light work in good working conditions. working conditions.

Variable allowancesVariable allowances are added to fixed allowances when working conditions differ are added to fixed allowances when working conditions differ noticeably from those stated above, for instance because of poor environmental noticeably from those stated above, for instance because of poor environmental conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the job conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the job in question, and so on.in question, and so on.

Relaxation allowances are given as percentages of the basic time. They are Relaxation allowances are given as percentages of the basic time. They are normally calculated on an element-by-element basis. normally calculated on an element-by-element basis.

Rest pausesRest pauses

Relaxation allowances can be taken in the form of rest pauses. While there is no Relaxation allowances can be taken in the form of rest pauses. While there is no hard and fast rule governing rest pauses, a common practice is to allow a hard and fast rule governing rest pauses, a common practice is to allow a 10 to 10 to 15 minute break15 minute break at mid-morning and mid-afternoon, often joined with facilities for at mid-morning and mid-afternoon, often joined with facilities for tea, coffee or cold drinks and snacks, and to permit the rest of the relaxation tea, coffee or cold drinks and snacks, and to permit the rest of the relaxation allowance to be taken at the good judgment of the worker.allowance to be taken at the good judgment of the worker.

Rest pauses are important for the following reasonsRest pauses are important for the following reasons::

They break up the monotony of the day.They break up the monotony of the day.

They give workers the chance to recover from fatigue and to attend to personal They give workers the chance to recover from fatigue and to attend to personal needs.needs.

They reduce the amount of time off taken by workers during working hours.They reduce the amount of time off taken by workers during working hours.

Where workers are working in conditions of heat, cold, noise or vibration it may Where workers are working in conditions of heat, cold, noise or vibration it may be necessary to introduce mandatory rest pauses as part of a work-rest routine to be necessary to introduce mandatory rest pauses as part of a work-rest routine to ensure the health and safety of the workers.ensure the health and safety of the workers.

Other allowancesOther allowances It is sometimes necessary to include allowances other than relaxation It is sometimes necessary to include allowances other than relaxation

allowances in the compilation of standard time. allowances in the compilation of standard time.

Contingency allowancesContingency allowances

A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a standard time to meet reasonable and expected items of work or delays. standard time to meet reasonable and expected items of work or delays.

The exact measurement of which is uneconomical because of their rare or The exact measurement of which is uneconomical because of their rare or irregular occurrenceirregular occurrence

Contingency allowances should not be greater than 5 per cent, and should only Contingency allowances should not be greater than 5 per cent, and should only be given in cases where the study person is absolutely satisfied that the be given in cases where the study person is absolutely satisfied that the contingencies cannot be eliminated and that they are justified. contingencies cannot be eliminated and that they are justified.

Special allowancesSpecial allowances

Special allowances may be given for any activities which are not normally part of Special allowances may be given for any activities which are not normally part of the operation cycle but which are essential to the satisfactory performance of the the operation cycle but which are essential to the satisfactory performance of the work. work.

Such allowances may be permanent or temporary; wherever possible, these Such allowances may be permanent or temporary; wherever possible, these allowances should be determined by time study.allowances should be determined by time study.

Start-up allowanceStart-up allowance to compensate for time taken by any work and any enforced waiting to compensate for time taken by any work and any enforced waiting time which necessarily occurs at the start of a shift or work period before production time which necessarily occurs at the start of a shift or work period before production can begin. can begin.

A shut-down allowanceA shut-down allowance may be given for work or waiting time occurring at the end of the may be given for work or waiting time occurring at the end of the day. day.

A cleaning allowanceA cleaning allowance is given when the worker has to give attention from time to time to is given when the worker has to give attention from time to time to cleaning his machine or workplace. cleaning his machine or workplace.

Tool allowanceTool allowance is an allowance of time to cover the adjustment and maintenance of tools. is an allowance of time to cover the adjustment and maintenance of tools.Some allowances are normally given per occasion or per batch. Such allowances are; Some allowances are normally given per occasion or per batch. Such allowances are; Set-up allowanceSet-up allowance, given to cover the time required for preparing a machine or process for , given to cover the time required for preparing a machine or process for

production, an operation which is necessary at the start of production on a batch of production, an operation which is necessary at the start of production on a batch of fresh products or components. fresh products or components.

Dismantling allowanceDismantling allowance may be given, to cover the time needed for making alterations to may be given, to cover the time needed for making alterations to machine or process settings after completing a run of production. machine or process settings after completing a run of production.

Reject allowanceReject allowance may be included in a standard time when the production of a proportion may be included in a standard time when the production of a proportion of defective products is inherent in the process, but is perhaps more usually given as of defective products is inherent in the process, but is perhaps more usually given as a temporary addition to standard times, per job or per batch, if an occasional bad a temporary addition to standard times, per job or per batch, if an occasional bad group of material has to be worked. group of material has to be worked.

Learning allowancesLearning allowances may be given to trainee operators engaged on work for which may be given to trainee operators engaged on work for which standard times have been issued, as a temporary benefit while they develop their standard times have been issued, as a temporary benefit while they develop their ability. ability.

Training allowanceTraining allowance is a similar allowance given to an experienced worker to compensate is a similar allowance given to an experienced worker to compensate for the time he is required to spend instructing a trainee, while both are working on for the time he is required to spend instructing a trainee, while both are working on jobs for which standard times have been set. jobs for which standard times have been set.

Implementation allowanceImplementation allowance, given to workers asked to adopt a new method or process to , given to workers asked to adopt a new method or process to encourage them to attempt an enthusiastic implementation of the new ways. encourage them to attempt an enthusiastic implementation of the new ways.

Small batch allowanceSmall batch allowance is required to allow a worker working on small batches to decide is required to allow a worker working on small batches to decide what to do and how to go about it and then to work up to a standard performance by what to do and how to go about it and then to work up to a standard performance by practice and repetition. practice and repetition.

Standard timeStandard time is the total time in which a job should be completed at standard is the total time in which a job should be completed at standard performance.performance.

In a case where the observed time is rated at less than standard pace, the rating In a case where the observed time is rated at less than standard pace, the rating factor will be shown inside the observed time. factor will be shown inside the observed time.

The contingencies and relaxation allowances are percentages of the basic time. The contingencies and relaxation allowances are percentages of the basic time. The standard time is expressed in standard minutes or standard hours.The standard time is expressed in standard minutes or standard hours.