chapter 12- classroom discussion to promote effective inquiry learning topics controversial issues...

Chapter 12- Classroom Discussion to Promote Effective Inquiry

Learning TopicsControversial Issues and Classroom Discussions: The Teacher's Role

Pre-Discussion Strategies to Clarify ThinkingFacilitating Classroom Discourse

Questioning to Promote Student Inquiry Through DiscussionsSummarizing Classroom Discussions: From Discussion to Action

Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Canada 12 - 1

Controversial Issues and Classroom Discussions: The Teacher’s Role

Social Studies is a subject area that has developed from our practice of examining ourselves in many social contexts.

Self- examination leads to differences of opinion. When opinions differ significantly, controversial issues arise. Self-examination of our society takes place through constructive dialogue. Freire (1970) defines dialogue as “the encounter between men [people]

mediated by the world…to name the world”. This definition highlights the role that dialogue about controversial issues

can have in the elementary classroom since naming concepts is critical to developing ideas with children.


Social Studies: Innovative Approaches for Teachers

The Value of Discussions about Controversial Issues

By leading and promoting discussions in the classroom, teachers can support students’ evolving sense of their role as mediators of truth and interpreters of events.

Students can develop a deeper understanding of the complexities and subtleties of issues by having opportunities to explore their perceptions and those of their classmates and the adults involved in their learning.

“Perhaps through these approaches, subsequent studies, and further refinements, we can realize Dewey’s (1940) vision and avoid the dangers of forbidden thought.” (Misco & Patterson, 2007)



Discussion for Perspectives

When students have early exposures to discussions about issues and come to realize that there are many sides and perspectives about controversial issues, their role as sense makers and personal mediators of the ideas they consider helps them to understand the nature of controversy and the role of open and honest discussion in a democratic context.



Increased dialogue among students

More equal educational opportunities as the contributions of others are recognized through dialogic

exploration

Social and political opportunities to participate in shaping the society



Benefits of Classroom Discussions

The benefits of discussions about controversial issues in the classroom are many:

The experience positions students to become agents of change; Students feel that they are actively engaging in decisions in the

social context; Students are able, through discussion experiences about

controversial issues, to recognize, celebrate, and accept diversity in their experiences with society;

Students can appreciate diversity among groups and within their own social contacts.

(Crossa, 2005)Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Canada 12 - 6


Additional Benefits

Classroom discussions among young children also support the development of their multiple literacy capacities, strengthening their abilities to speak, listen, envision, and exemplify.



Cautions! Teachers must take into account the dynamics of their classroom when

structuring and planning for this approach. Jackson (2008) cautions teachers to be aware of the social inequities and

hierarchies that exist in any social group and to recognize that a group may not accept each participant’s input with the same value.

When members of a classroom group do not share common interests among the social structures in the group, sharing views about difficult issues is a complex undertaking.

The inability of everyone in the group to experience, know, or share the perspectives of others in the group may cause divisions within the class group and may lead to withdrawal of those who feel underrepresented or misunderstood within the group.



!!! In choosing to use discussion of controversial issues in the

classroom, teachers must first understand the age appropriateness of the topic for the students involved.

Successful engagement of students’ interest in the topic also means that students need immersion in the content of the topic so that discussion is informed by knowledge.

Teachers need to recognize that some controversial issues matter more than others.

The relevance of a particular issue will relate to its timeliness within the society, and other factors that reflect time, place, and social dynamics.



Why Some Controversial Issues will Matter More than Others

They are timely issues in the society.

Students have studied the topic and have a critical mass of background knowledge on which to base opinions.

Many students in the group feel passionately about a particular issue.

The need to engage in a discussion has arisen from the students’ need to examine aspects of an issue, rather than from the teacher’s choice of discussion as an imposed methodology.

Action is possible.

The issue has longevity; it will make a difference if students understand different perspectives that may impinge on the issue.

The issue is comprehensible by the age group of students.

Discussion of the issue has the potential to influence students’ cohesion as a group, sense of efficacy as a social group, and/or sense of empowerment as young citizens.



Managing a Classroom Discussion about Controversial Issues

Managing the discussion of controversial issues in the classroom with benefit to the students requires skills and professional strategies on the part of the teacher.



Managing Discussions

When members of a classroom group do not share common interests among the social structures in the group, sharing views about difficult issues is a complex undertaking.

The inability of everyone in the group to experience, know, or share the perspectives of others in the group may cause divisions within the class group and may lead to withdrawal of those who feel underrepresented or misunderstood within the group.



Why Teachers May Avoid Classroom Discussions

Teachers may avoid the opportunities that are available for introducing classroom discussions of controversial issues for many reasons.

The teacher’s sense of academic freedom is a major factor in the determination to provide opportunities to openly address controversy in the classroom.

If the teacher feels confined by the social context of the school community, the choice to engage in discussions of controversial issues can risk conflict within the school and between the teacher and the school community.



In pursuing academic freedom by presenting controversial issues for discussion in the classroom, teachers must first

consider the following questions: Do I know enough about this topic? Do my students have sufficient academic background about the nuances of

this topic to benefit from an exploration of each other’s perspectives about an issue?

Is the school community open to the exploration of this issue? Is there any imminent reason why it would be unwise to explore this issue at

this time? Do I have administrative support and understanding of my use of discussions

of controversial issues? Is prior communication with parents about the intention to discuss certain

issues necessary? What are my beliefs and values about this issue?



Why Discussion Ground Rules are Needed

Classroom discussion opportunities may be structured with some ground rules that will help to support the flow and equality of a discussion.

Teachers cannot assume that because they set ground rules in the classroom, that all students will feel equally valued in expressing their opinion.

Classrooms are unequally structured, with those students who feel educationally confident and socially secure being the most outgoing and engaged in opportunities that require risk (Jackson, 2008).

"…Different voices pay different prices for the words they choose to utter”. ~Boler, 1994



Sample Discussion Ground Rules: The Teacher’s View

Students have opportunities to define what they consider to be controversial and worthy of discussion.

Time is provided for students to prepare for discussions; they are not discussing topics “cold”.

Pre-discussion strategies are taught and practised to surface students’ knowledge about a topic (e.g., four corners); See Chapter 3 for cooperative learning strategies that support preparation to engage in discussions.

Students understand the language of decisions (e.g., options, criteria, etc.).

Classroom rules and procedures are used effectively to ensure an atmosphere of respect and to ensure that learning time is respected and effectively used.

The teacher is prepared to model the roles of thoughtful speaker and sensitive listener/respondent as required.



Sample Discussion Ground Rules: The Students’ View

Students’ age will be a critical aspect to consider when introducing discussions.

Students’ imperfect knowledge of themselves, other students, and social norms, especially in emotionally charged situations, will require that teachers monitor and engage the progress of discussions carefully.

Some ground rules for classroom discussions will help.



The Ground Rules Students aShould Understand

Understand the two roles you have in a discussion… the role of thoughtful speaker and the role of sensitive listener/respondent.

You may be passionate and emotional about the issue; you may not be abrasive in the way you express your passion and emotion.

Equality is not sameness; while everyone may wish to speak about this issue, your decision not to speak will be respected.

Be prepared to support your opinion with ideas that can be discussed.

Be prepared to accommodate the opinions of others.

Stay focused on solutions and social justice actions.

Recognize that what causes an issue for you may not cause an issue for fellow students.

While you may question another student’s opinion, you may not question a student’s option not to express one.

Ridicule is never acceptable.

Discussions may have time limits.Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Canada 12 - 18


What about sharing your views?“We enter educational settings with pedagogical frameworks reflecting our commitments to various sorts of social change. One should not hide or repress such interests by attempting to enter classrooms as apparently neutral facilitators.” – Jackson, 2008

The line that will need cautious attention is between making your views known when that becomes appropriate as part of a classroom discussion and making your views known for the sake of trying to convince others to align with your opinion on an issue.



Some circumstances may influence your freedom to express your opinion about issues.

Many external forces on education can attempt to sterilize the curriculum and work against children’s natural curiosity about their teacher’s position about issues under discussion. These external factors may include: Ideology

Politicized cultures; teacher’s fear of a negative response from the school staff, administration, and/or parents

Government influence of school curriculum

Limits on academic freedom

The teacher’s lack of knowledge about the issue

The teacher’s lack of professional confidence in using discussion as an educational strategy.



Making Students Aware of Controversy

When teachers do not use discussion techniques to make students aware of the existence of controversy, they risk students’ acceptance of the presented narrative as the single possible interpretation of events and fail to expose students to the nuances of multiple perspectives.

Students are "…instead exposed to materials that are purported narratives of their nation and locality, which limits beliefs and entrenches singular narratives” (Hein & Selden, 2000).

When teachers take an artificially neutral stance of a controversial issue, students may interpret the issue as being value free or unimportant.

By using Social Studies content to examine the influences on modern life and the values that are espoused by certain practices, teachers provide a meaningful curriculum that has current relevance as it allows students to examine how we came to function as we currently do.



The Danger of Avoiding Controversial Discussions

“Topics closed to reflective thought can certainly result in sustained unexamined beliefs and the formation of decisions that are based on blind impulse, emotion, or prejudice.” ~ Misco & Patterson, 2007



Knowing the School Community When teachers choose to use discussions as a strategy to explore

controversy in Social Studies, they must do so with full awareness that societies generally have silenced histories and taboo topics (Misco and Patterson, 2007) .

Many topics of discussion may introduce emotional responses that reach beyond the classroom.

Some issues may be avoided both in the school curriculum and in the broader community.

The use of discussions that are preceded by academic preparation to engage in them effectively, and communication within and beyond the school to ensure support for the approach, can ensure a curriculum that goes beyond the “… general tendency toward neutral and value-free learning experiences” ( Misco and Patterson, 2007).



Pre-Discussion Strategies to Clarify Thinking

Students of all ages will benefit from having opportunities to clarify their own thinking before they engage in classroom discussions.

The strategies used to support pre-discussion preparations will depend on the age and literacy level of the students. In the early primary grades, open whole-class discussions may be preceded by partner or small group discussions.

These approaches allow students to practise stating an opinion and facing requirements from their peers to explain their thoughts without the complication of trying to write about what they think.

Their oral language is usually more developed than written language as well, so a greater breadth of ideas may emerge when small group and partner pre-discussion approaches are used.



The Value of Using Pre-discussion Strategies

Using this pre-discussion strategy, the teacher allows young students to: Understand that some problems have many aspects to them. Not everyone sees the same aspects of a problem as being the

most important aspect. A solution for one group (the birdfeeders) may be a problem

for another group (the caretakers). Use a comfortable literacy approach to engage the task by

giving a choice among speaking, writing, or drawing. Develop their sense of efficacy by engaging them in finding a

solution(s). Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Canada 12 - 25


Variations in the Teacher’s Stance on Controversial Issues in the Classroom

Exclusive neutrality -The teacher tries not to introduce topics that the broader community may find controversial.

Exclusive partiality- The teacher seems to suggest that a correct position on the controversial issue exists and the role of the discussion is to uncover the correct view.

Neutral impartiality- The teacher structures classroom discussions about issues but does not present their own views in the discussion.

Committed impartiality- The teacher explains his /her own beliefs about the issue and their thinking to support their beliefs to avoid disingenuous discussions.



Samples of Controversial Issues in Social Studies



Racial conflict Welfare

Conflict over education Domestic abuse

Activism Sexual harassment

Religious conflict Homelessness

Gender identity/Sexual orientation conflict Citizen apathy

Political conflict Ethnic conflict

Restriction of freedom for national security Public protests

Conflict among economic groups Poverty

Conflict over health (Oliver and Shaver, 1974; Parker, 2003)

Once choices are made to engage in discussions that

include the potential for controversy, teachers need to: Provide a wide variety of resources available through multiple literacies (text, visual, auditory) so that

students have access to information on which to base informed opinions

Provide frameworks that will support students’ consideration of multiple perspectives about an issue

Help students select or design graphic organizers that will help them organize their arguments prior to discussions and to uncover and record alternative perspectives and supporting ideas

Expose students to strategies that support productive homogenous group work

Help students access underlying opinions and criteria related to controversial issues in stories both told and read

Teach students age appropriate debate structures to help them explore and reach consensus when faced with controversy

Ensure pre-discussion immersion in the topic so that discussions are informed and respect the use of valued learning time.



Long Term Benefits of Classroom Discussions

Students who take part in classroom discussions are more likely to:

Vote in later life

Support basic democratic values

Take part in political discussions

Follow political news in the media

Be interested in the political process

Have confidence in their ability to influence public policy. (Barton & McCully, 2007)



Addressing Strong Emotions During Discussions

Once ground rules are in place to set the tone for interactions in the classroom (during all interactions, including discussions), teachers should face discussions that have the potential to elicit strong emotions by:

Providing structure for personal reflection on a controversial issue before discussions; Reviewing ground rules before substantive discussions and post anchor charts so that ground rules are

visible to students throughout discussions; Remaining calm when students respond and interact emotionally; Challenging personal disrespect; Allowing the expression of all opinions, even extreme ones, but require rationale; Not withholding your opinion; do not impose it either; Pre-establishing the time available for the discussion that day; revisit the topic another day if student

interest warrants it; Providing decompression time to have students calm themselves and reestablish social equilibrium in the

classroom before students leave the room each day; reflective writing that requires students to reflect on another opinion that does not align with their own and assume the role of that person, as they write a support for the opinion may, help them appreciate alternative perspectives.



To create an emotionally safe discussion environment to investigate Social Studies issues:

Put limits on how strong emotions can manifest during discussions (e.g., welcome students’ opportunities to say anything but limit the ways they state opinions to non-abrasive approaches).

Allow highly charged discussions but anticipate them and provide sufficient time for “cool down” following them.

Recognize that discussions may include initially irrational statements by students as a step in clarifying their actual opinions about some topics.

Respond non-judgmentally to students’ opinions; teach students to do the same (e.g., address the idea, not the person presenting it).

Accept that discussion is a process designed to lead to better, more enriched ideas through democratic input; teach students to accept the messy phase of discussions.



And…

Determine your own comfort level with personal disclosure about the issue prior to the discussion.

Withhold you views about the issue until students have had sufficient opportunity to express and explore their opinions; this may mean waiting until students show an interest in what you think about the issue.

Challenge students to support their ideas with rational argument, examples and stories.

Teach students the difference between examples, definitions and explanations.



Examining Differences of OpinionTry these approaches: Deal with emotions - Allow students to express emotions so that they can get beyond them to address issues objectively. Respond non-judgmentally.

Mix it up - Expose students to ideological diversity. This will help them to manage conflict in rationales among their peers about the issues that are discussed. Make conflicts in ideology explicit so that students become aware of the degree of consensus and difference around issues. Expose students to ideological differences across groups and within groups, especially within their own social/ cultural group. Make explicit the alternative positions within students’ own tradition.

Find support - Teachers should be aware of the values and culture of their school, community, and the leadership team of the school. Have confidence in your professional judgment. Respect the unique perspectives and views of the community. Create professional networks to share strategies. Provide opportunities for students to connect historical studies to contemporary and relevant issues. Maintain flexibility in the curriculum to allow time and strategies to address issues of local concern.



Posing Discussion Questions

Keep questions open-ended. Example of a yes/no question:“ Should Canada continue its military peace

keeping role in….?”

Example of an open ended question:“ What role should Canada play in military peace

keeping in…?”Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Canada 12 - 34


Invitational Classroom Environment for Discussions

Teachers will need to remember the power of authority that unequal social standing in a classroom will impart to certain speakers. It becomes the teacher’s role to ensure that open discussions of issues do not start with the imposition of the theories of the socially empowered students in the group (Jackson, 2008) so that discussions are fully open to embrace the actual opinions held by group members.



Helping Students Formulate their own Questions for Discussions

Interactive development (through the teacher leading discussion with the students) of a brainstormed list of possible questions Partners/ groups work to produce a list of brainstormed questions.

Partners/ groups work to narrow a list of brainstormed questions for a specific purpose.

Specific formative assessment feedback is given by the teacher to refine a question for research.

Students are given another context and produce a brainstormed list of possible questions in small groups.

Students independently narrow the list of brainstormed questions and refine the selected question to formulate direction for research.

Students engage in metacognitive discussion and reflection on the selected question and approaches used to formulate them to ensure they are aware of their strategies (i.e., “What strategies did you learn?”, “How did they work?”, “What do you need to do differently?”)



Teachers could ask students to assemble words from a question word bank to formulate new questions. Question word banks can be designed specifically for a new topic or chosen to be generic and reusable. Teachers would photocopy a word bank, cut up each cell, and place all words in an envelope. Then, when students are required to create their own questions, they can sort words from the question word bank to make their specific questions. This reduces the writing requirement and exposes students to a variety of terms they could use in their questions.

Add photo of child from below Figure 11 here

By providing extra cells in an envelope of generic question words, teachers allow students the opportunity to fill in cells with the specific content they need to complete the question words they have chosen. This strategy can be modified by printing individual words on magnetic metal discs and allowing students to shuffle to discs around on a metal cookie tray to form questions.



Strategies for Creating Discussions in the Classroom

Question Bingo – Read a short historical story to students and provide them with a bingo card of sentence stems. If they can ask questions starting with the stems on their cards, or they can answer questions starting with those stems but posed by others, they can mark that stem on their bingo card.

Question Hopscotch- Divide students into partners and have them draw a hopscotch pad on pavement (or on a large sheet of desk top paper). Have students ask questions about an historical or geographic topic and record each question on a segment of their hopscotch frame. Then, each pair can partner with another team to play each other’s hopscotch game. Instead of throwing a stone or taw onto the hopscotch frame, students must answer each question to skip to the next part of the hopscotch pad.

Who am I?- After immersing students in a topic, expose them to questioning skills practice by taping a picture representing some aspect of the topic (e.g., an aerial map of a famous location) onto each students’ back. Have students wander around the room and ask each other questions, that can be answered by yes or no, about what is on their back. The student can remove their picture once they have accumulated enough clues to figure out what their picture depicts.



Use Guiding Questions for Units to Focus Activities and Ensure Deep Understanding

Characteristics of guiding questions: Open ended; no one answer is the right answer The question focuses upcoming inquiry on a specific and manageable

topic The question is stated in a non-judgmental way and may be answered in a

variety of ways The question has emotive force and intellectual integrity; it directs true

inquiry into the topic; this is often achieved by including the word “good” in front of an object word

The question is stated succinctly; it gets to the point of the inquiry The question allows answer(s) that include multiple points of view and

connections among ideas. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Canada 12 - 39


To lead students’ development of guiding questions to start the process of their inquiry, teachers can use some

or all of the following strategies:

Lead students to brainstorm every question they can think of about the topic. Then, guide students to sort the questions into two piles. One pile should represent questions that can be easily answered by factual information (e.g., How many women were on the boat?). The second question pile should include all of the questions that require more research, multiple perspectives to be considered, and may be subject to opinion.

For the questions placed in the second pile, have students work to word them as guiding questions using an anchor chart of the characteristics of guiding questions to support their thinking.

Have students sort the guiding questions they have now revised into a priority list with those that interest them most at the top of the list.

Have students analyze their top priority guiding question to determine if there are embedded supplementary questions that will need to be investigated to help them learn more about the guiding question. To probe for supplementary questions, have students try to frame questions that start with Who? Where? When? Why? What? or How? This can be done in the form of a web so that students’ ideas can flow randomly, then get sorted into time priorities later.



Summarizing Classroom Discussions: From Discussion to Action

The point of engaging students in classroom discussions is to influence their engagement in social action.

Passionate beliefs clarified through classroom discussions can translate into passionate commitment to positive actions.

In Chapter 6, we examined social justice as a goal for Social Studies programs. The types of social justice actions that students can engage will be influenced by many factors

that teachers will need to consider.

These include: The age of the students Previous experience with social justice actions The support of the school staff and administration Local culture and community sensitivities to various issues Time of the year Curriculum priorities Safety Short and long term impact of actions.



Helping Students Understand Perspective

Graphic organizers that structure students’ reading or viewing will help them sort their thinking in preparation for discussions. A sample graphic organizer to help students examine sources from differing perspectives is provided.



A Graphic Organizer to Help Students Understand Perspective

Question Perspective of… Perspective of…Who?Where?When?Why?How?How much?How Long?Other…



Using Newspapers in Social Studies

The use of newspapers in the classroom can support students’ developing sense of themselves as members of a structured and growing society and students' acquisition of knowledge to support inquiry.

Newspapers provide another media literacy venue to support creativity and research skills in students.

Positive attitudes and strong abilities support students’ growing self-concept and sense of self-efficacy as they engage in using resources that may initially be baffling and very complex for them.



Samples of some methodologies for using newspapers in Social Studies include:

After becoming familiar with the questions that are usually addressed in newspaper stories (who?, what?, where?, when?, why?, how?) students can be asked to present stories about themselves and about life in their family or their community using this format. They might also assume the role of a particular worker in their community and describe that person’s working day through the use of the news questions.

Students could undertake a word study in their local newspaper by examining word alternatives used to provide variety in a text ( e.g., How many ways does the newspaper on a particular day present the idea of success or defeat using different phrasing?).

Students can get a sense of the layout of their local community by examining advertising in the newspaper and plotting the location of businesses on a local map.

Many more strategies are provided in your textbook.



Chapter Review Self-examination leads to differences of opinion.

Constructive dialogue is a self-examination strategy.

Classroom discussions can help students develop a sense of their roles as mediators of truth and interpreters of events in a democratic context.

Discussions promote students’ ability to see issues from many perspectives.

Discussions are a strategy to address controversial issues.

Students have positive reactions to the opportunity to use discussions to address controversial issues.

There are many academic and social benefits that accrue from discussion experiences.



Discussions need to be managed, not controlled, very carefully to be beneficial for all students.

Immersion in the content of the topic must precede discussions so that discussions are informed by knowledge.

Some controversial issues matter more than others.

A teacher’s sense of his/her academic freedom may influence choices to engage or avoid discussions of some issues.

Some classroom ground rules for discussions will support the successful inclusion of all opinions.

Teachers should not impose their personal views during classroom discussions; neither should they avoid expressing their opinions in the interest of keeping discussions open and honest.

External factors that impinge on education can put pressure on teachers to avoid or modify classroom discussions.



Discussions allow students to have experience with forming reasoned judgments, increase their civic efficacy, improve their critical thinking skills, develop stronger interpersonal skills, provide opportunities to explore their role in political activity, develop tolerance, and create greater interest in current events, social studies, and social issues.

Students need structured opportunities to clarify their own thinking before they engage in substantive classroom discussions.

Cooperative learning strategies provide many strategies that can be used for pre-discussion preparation.

Teachers see many barriers to discussions of some current topics.

Classroom discussions of historical issues may be easier to address than emotionally charged current issues.

Being aware of your own approach to an issue being introduced for discussion will help teachers expand their use of the strategy.



There are many persistent social issues that can be discussed in relation to many Social Studies courses.

Experiences with classroom discussions in school contexts correlate with desirable citizenship traits in adult life.

Several strategies can be used to harness the strong emotions elicited by some discussion topics.

Thorough understanding of the formats of various types of questions will help students open discussions to conflicting views.

Practice in developing questions that open controversy is necessary for young students.

Students can be taught to ask guiding questions that will lead to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation during discussions.

Classroom discussions can lead to social justice actions.



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