chapter 11 interest groups - augusta county public schools€¦ · • they do not support the...

Chapter 11

Interest Groups

Copyright © 2011 Cengage

KEY TERM:

lobbying (lobbyist, to lobby)

Making direct contact with government officials to persuade them to support or oppose specific policies.

The Birth of Interest Groups

An interest group is any organization that seeks to influence public policy.



Interest Groups = Factions

“By a faction, I understand a number

of citizens, whether amounting to a

majority or a minority of the whole,

who are united and actuated by some

common impulse of passion, or of

interest, adversed to the rights of other

citizens, or to the permanent and

aggregate interests of the community.”

James Madison, Federalist #10


Interest groups have been part of U.S.

politics almost since the beginning.

“In no country in the world has the

principle of association been more

successfully used...than in America.”

Alexis de Tocqueville, 1834


Interest groups have been part of U.S.

politics almost since the beginning.

The First Amendment ensures

that interest groups will be part of

the political system.

• Freedom of association

• Freedom of speech

• Right to petition the government

Factors that lead to formation of interest

groups

• Size and diversity of the country • Great variety of groups – ethnic, religious, economic/business, non-profits, etc. • Our constitutional system:

o Stimulates political participation o Decentralizing - three different branches, federalism

• The weakening of political parties

The Birth of Interest Groups

The conditions that lead to the rise of interest groups are:

• Broad economic developments

• Government policy

• Movements and leaders

• Expanding role of government


Conditions that lead to the rise of interest groups


1. Broad economic developments create new interests and redefine old interests.

a) Farmers became politically active when their livelihoods became dependent on selling crops in unstable markets or became affected by external forces.

b) Mass-production industries were established, thus creating a need for mass-membership unions.



2. Government policy itself.

• The more a government does, the more interest groups will form in response.

• Wars create veterans, who demand

benefits.

• Encouraged formation of American Farm Bureau Federation and professional associations



3. Social movements

• Members – often young – willing to join a cause at large personal expense.

• Religious revival of 1830s and 1840s, and creation of antislavery organizations

• Civil rights and antiwar movements of the

1960s.

• Consumer protection movement (Ralph Nadar)



4. Expanding role of government—creates policies of concern to groups

Kinds of Organizations

Institutional Interests

• Individuals or organizations that represent other organizations. • Example: AIG hires a Washington law firm to lobby members of Congress. • Inst. interests represent businesses, governments, foundations, universities, etc.

Membership Interests

• Individuals join a group for some specific reason. • Example: Someone who enjoys hunting joins the National Rifle Association.

Kinds of Organizations ECONOMIC INTERESTS

• Primarily concerned with profits, prices and wages.

“But the most common and durable source of

factions has been the various and unequal

distribution of property... A landed interest, a

manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a

moneyed interest, with many lesser interests,

grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and

divide them into different classes, actuated by

different sentiments and views.”

James Madison, Federalist #10

Kinds of Organizations ECONOMIC INTERESTS

• Primarily concerned with profits, prices and wages. • Government effects them through regulations, subsidies, contracts, tax and trade policies. • Examples:

o Labor unions – AFL-CIO, UMW o Agricultural groups – American Farm Bureau Federation, National Peanut Council o Business groups – (biggest group) GM, At&T o Professional groups – American Medical Assoc.

Kinds of Organizations CONSUMER & PUBLIC INTEREST GROUPS

• Champion causes “in the public interest.” • Seek a collective good or benefits for everyone. • Examples:

o Public interest groups – Common Cause, League of Women Voters o Environmental groups – Sierra Club, Audubon Society

Kinds of Organizations EQUALITY AND JUSTICE INTERESTS

• Groups that promote equal rights and justice,

esp. for women and minorities. • Examples:

o NAACP – oldest and largest such group o National Organization for Women o Gay & Lesbian Leadership Institute

Incentives to join interest groups

The problem of free riders

• Free riders are persons in the general public who benefit from the efforts of the organization without actually joining the organization. • They do not support the organization through financial aid or join it and contribute membership effort. • The larger the group, the more free riders there are in it.


MATERIAL INCENTIVES • Things like money, services, benefits are used to recruit members • To increase benefits for members, organization may try to influence how laws are administered. • Examples: farm organizations, AARP


PURPOSIVE INCENTIVES • Appeal is based on goals of the organization • People join such groups because:

o They are passionate about the goals of the organization o They have a strong sense of civic duty o Cost of joining is minimal

•Ideological interest groups: appeal of coherent and, often, controversial principles •Public interest groups: purpose principally benefits nonmembers


SOLIDARY INCENTIVES • Join for pleasure, status, companionship • Often focused on issues at a local level. • Examples: Parent-teacher associations, civic clubs (Rotary, Kiwanis)


Interest groups & Social Movements

Social movement: a widely shared demand for change in the social or political order, either liberal or conservative.

Which type of incentive increases for people who involve themselves in a social movement? a. solidary b.material c. purposive



Environmental movement

• 1890s: emergence of preservation as an issue; founding of Sierra Club •1930s: preservation again popular; Wilderness Society and National Wildlife Federation founded • 1960s and 1970s: environment important again; Environmental Defense Fund and Environmental Action founded



Environmental movement

Highlights general lessons about social movements: a) Movement may spawn many

organizations

b) More extreme organizations will be smaller and more activist

c) More moderate organizations will be larger and less activist



Feminist movement

Three kinds of organizations

Solidary: example: League of Women Voters • Middle-class educated women • Avoid issues that might divide membership or limit networks (examples: partisanship, abortion)



Feminist movement


Purposive: examples are NOW, NARAL Pro-Choice • Highly activist organizations that take strong positions on divisive issues • Internal controversy is common

• Local organizations are highly independent from national organization.


Feminist movement


Material: examples are Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL); National Women’s Political Caucus (NWPC); National Federation of Republican Women

• Networking with other female Republican activists • Leadership and political skills training • Conventions w/ workshops, etc. • Meetings w/ national Republican leaders • Communication resources • Staff assistance from national office



Labor Unions

• The social movement has died; sustaining membership is difficult. • Economic changes have not worked to unions’ benefit in member recruitment. • Public approval of unions has declined. • But unions do offer a mix of benefits and are attracting white-collar employees (such as government workers).



Summary

• Social movements spawn interest groups.

• Dynamics of social movements & interest groups illustrated by:

o Environmental movement – large/moderate vs. small/extreme o Feminist movement – different groups offer different incentives o Labor unions – groups struggle to maintain membership after social movement dies.

The Activities of Interest Groups

Information

Public Support

Money and PACs

Civil Disobedience

Litigation

The “Revolving Door”


Lobbyist Candi Wolff discusses public policy with Senator Christopher S. Bond (R-MO). p. 274

Scott J. Ferrell/Congressional Quarterly/Getty Images



Information

• Providing credible information to lawmakers is the most important tactic of interest groups.

• Detailed, current information is highly valued by legislators. It is the basis of the relationship. • Officials also need political cues regarding what

values are at stake and how that fits with their own political beliefs.

• Rating systems are intended to generate support or opposition for legislators.



Public Support: Rise of “new politics”

• Traditional model: “Insider” lobbyist makes face-to-face contact with member of Congress or staffer.

• New model: “Outsider strategy” o Grassroots mobilization of issue public o Use of modern technology to communicate o Useful with individualistic Congress, as opposed to party-based Congress. o Useful for interest groups with smaller financial resources.



Public Support: Rise of “new politics”

• Politicians dislike controversy, so they work with interest group they agree with. • Lobbyists’ key targets: the undecided legislator or bureaucrat • Legislators sometimes buck public opinion, unless the issue is very important and would cost them an election.


Money & PACs

• Some interest groups do have large financial resources. • Iconic image: fat-cat lobbyists buying influence in Washington. • The 1973 campaign finance reform law changed that. • Today, money is the least effective way to influence politicians.

PAC contributions limited to: • $5,000 per candidate per election • $15,000 to any national party.



Money & PACs

• Rapid growth in PACs has probably not led to vote buying. • More money is available on all sides of the issues. • Members of Congress take money but still can decide how to vote.

The Activities of Interest Groups Money & PACs

• There is no systematic evidence that PAC money influences votes in Congress. • When an issue is of little concern to voters and ideology provides little guidance (narrow focus), there is a slight correlation between PAC contributions and votes. • Most PAC contributions are small and they contribute to many candidates (sometimes both sides in a race). • Most members vote their ideology and with their constituents.


Civil Disobedience • Disruption has always been part of United States politics and has been used by groups of varying ideologies as well as by others. • Civil disobedience tactics have been more frequently used since the 1960s, becoming more generally accepted.

The Activities of Interest Groups Civil Disobedience

• Goals:

o Disrupt the institution and force negotiations o Enlist the support of others who will also press for negotiations o Create martyrs to draw public concern and support

• Often create no-win situations for public officials, who

are criticized whether they negotiate or not.

The Activities of Interest Groups Litigation (Lawsuits)

• Interest groups may sue businesses or the federal government for action. • Examples:

Environmentalist groups have used this strategy successfully to force businesses to follow regulations. Civil rights groups (such as NAACP) used courts to advance desegregation, equal housing, labor market equality.

• Useful if there is low public support for cause. • Even the threat of lawsuits may bring action.




• Government officials leave to take more lucrative positions in private industry (lobbying, consulting, executive positions).

DICK CHENEY • Secretary of Defense under Bush, Sr. • Awarded Defense Dept. contracts to Brown & Root Services, owned by Halliburton Co. • After leaving the Defense Dept., Cheney became CEO of Halliburton. • The door “revolved” again when Cheney re-entered government as Vice-President.




Examples: • FDA: employees’ judgment about new drugs may be

clouded by promise of lucrative positions if drug is approved

• FTC: employees may have better chance at lucrative position later if they are vigorous at prosecuting antitrust suits



The “Revolving Door” • May give private interests a way to improperly influence government decisions • Promise of future jobs to officials in exchange for acting in corporate interest • Person who has left uses personal contacts in Washington for favorable treatment.


William J. Jefferson • Accepted bribes in the hundreds of thousands of dollars.

• FBI found $90,000 cash in his freezer.

• Convicted and sentenced to thirteen years in prison.

Funds for Interest Groups

Foundation Grants

Federal Grants and Contracts

Direct Mail


A Green Bay Packers linebacker solicits money for the Salvation Army, p. 272

The Green Bay News-Chronicle, H. Marc Larson/AP Photo


Funding for Interest groups

Foundation grants

One study found that one-third of public-interest lobbying groups received more than half of all their funds from foundation grants.

http://www.macfound.org/



Federal grants and contracts

1. Expansion of federal grants in the 1960s and 1970s benefited interest groups; cutbacks in 1980s hurt them.

2. Money given not for lobbying, but to support projects a) Providing social services b) Running community projects


Direct mail

1. Unique to modern interest groups

2. Through the use of computers, mail is sent directly to a specialized audience. 3. But this approach is also expensive—must generate checks from at least 2 percent of the people contacted 4.Techniques

a) Teaser on the envelope b) Letter arouses emotions c) Famous-name endorsement d) Personalization of the letter

Figure 11.1 What the Top Lobby

Spent, 1998-2004


Source: Center for Public Integrity, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 2006. p. 265

Regulating Interest Groups

The First Amendment ensures

that interest groups will be part

of the political system.

• Freedom of association

• Freedom of speech

• Right to petition

Regulating Interest Groups Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act

(1946)

Groups seeking to influence Congress were required to:

• Register with the Secretary of the Senate and Clerk of the House

• File quarterly financial reports

In U.S. v. Harriss (1954) the SCOTUS narrowly interpreted the law, saying it:

• Applied only to Congress, not the executive branch.

• Did not restrict grassroots interest group activity.

FRLA had little practical effect.


1995 reforms

1995 act provided a broader definition of lobbying and tightened reporting requirements

Requires reports twice a year, including client names, expenditures, issues

Grassroots mobilization still exempted

No enforcement agency established, but Justice Department may undertake investigations.

Tax-exempt, nonprofit organizations cannot receive federal grants if they lobby.


2007 reforms enacted by Democrats include:

No gifts of any value from registered lobbyists or firms that employ them

No reimbursement for travel costs from registered lobbyists or firms that employ them.

No reimbursement for travel costs from any source if trip is organized or requested by registered lobbyists or firms that employ them.


SUMMARY

Legal restrictions are as strict as they have ever been.

Bribery and overt corruption are illegal.

The First Amendment allows considerable freedom for lobbyists and interest groups.

The Problem of Bias

Do interest groups reflect an upper-class bias?


Those most likely to belong to a voluntary association have

• Higher incomes • College degrees • Professional or technical jobs

The Problem of Bias



Business/professional groups more numerous and better financed than those representing minorities, consumers, or the disadvantaged.

The Problem of Bias



• These facts alone do not prove bias. • They describe who participates in the political system but not who eventually wins or loses on particular issues • Business groups are often divided among themselves.

chapter 11 interest groups - augusta county public schools€¦ · • they do not support the...

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