Chapter 10.2

• Concept 10-2 We can preserve forests by emphasizing their economic value of their ecological services, shielding old-growth forests, harvesting tress at a equal rate then being replenished, and using wise sustainable resources.

• The Smokey bear educational campaign has taken initiatives to prevent forest fires.• Right now, there is a 40% chance of threat in federal forests.• We should use prescribed fires that needs cautious monitoring to prevent fires from being out of control.• We can clear small trees for that will easily catch on fire.• There is 60% of trees in the United States that are being wasted for unnecessary purposes.• Most paper is from kenaf and kudzu which can be recycled.• A major reason for deforestation is the use of fuel wood and charcoal. It is used to make fuel for cooking and

firewood.• Haiti is a country with a tropical paradise until all the tropical forest are cut down for fuel use.• A way to reduce the lost of tropical forest is to make small plantation of fast growing fuel wood.• Protect the most diverse and endangered areas• Educate news settlers about the agriculture and forestry.• Reduce poverty• Slow down the population growth• Rehabilitate degraded areas• Concententrate farming in clear cut areas.

Chapter 10.3• Concept-10-3: We can preserve the productivity of grasslands by managing

the quantity and distribution of livestock and recover older grassland.• Rangelands are unfenced grasslands in many temperate and tropical climates

that gives forage, or vegetation• Pastures- controlled grassland or meadows planted with other domestic grass• Overgrazing- when too many animals graze for a long time and the grass is

dying out due to too much consumption• Too much overgrazing greatest sagebrush, mesquite, cactus, and cheat grass• They have acknowledged it would great future desert and inhabitable land.• We can manage this by rational grazing which cattle are confined by table

fencing to one area and livestock eat for a short amount of time• We can control removal of grassland..

Problems affecting parks run from little/no protection from their governments or being too small to sustain large animal species, to being too popular and, therefore, overused by people. Some methods for managing parks include: limiting the number of

visitors, raising entry fees to provide funds for maintenance and management, managing parks in reference to nearby federal lands, discouraging development around already

established parks, and providing more volunteers and better paid employees to maintain the parks.

Only about 7% of the world’s terrestrial areas are protected from potentially harmful human activities; these areas need to be expanded throughout the world. In

order to adequately conserve biodiversity, at least 20% of the earth’s land area should be protected in a global network of reserves.

Wilderness is an amount of land legally set aside to prevent/minimize harm from human activities. This is land where human beings may visit but not remain.

Wilderness areas are important for: (1) their natural beauty, (2) their natural biological diversity, (3) their enhancement of mental and physical health of visitors, and (4) their

contributions to biodiversity and to evolutionary possibilities.

Sadman Chowdhury 6th 4/21/13Living In the Environment Miller Spoolman Chapter 10.4- 10.5

Sadman Chowdhury 6th 4/21/13Living In the Environment Miller

Spoolman

• Ecological restoration is the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems.

• Initiatives that would help to sustain the earth’s biodiversity include:• – Immediately preserving the world’s biological hot spots• – Protecting the remaining old-growth forests • – Mapping the world’s terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity• – Identifying and taking action for the world’s marine hot spots, just as for

the terrestrial hot spots • – Protecting and restoring the world’s lakes and river systems• – Developing a global conservation strategy that protects the earth’s

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems• – Making conservation profitable• – Initiating ecological restoration projects worldwide

Chapter 11:1-3

Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity

What Are The Major Threats To Aquatic Biodiversity????

• Human activities are destroying and degrading aquatic habitats

• A major threat is loss and degradation of many habitats by dredging operations and trawler fishing boats

• Population growth and pollution can reduce aquatic biodiversity

• Climate change, over fishing and extinction are some other threats

How Can We Protect And Sustain Marine Biodiversity???

• Laws and treaties have protected some endangered and threatened marine species which is difficult is because of our ecological footprint

• Also another way we can protect or biodiversity is to involve using economic incentives

How Should We Manage And Sustain Marine Fisheries???

• The first step to protect and sustaining the worlds marine fisheries is to make the best possible estimates of their fish populations

• Another step is to regulate fishing• Some countries use a market based system

called vidual transfer rights to control access to fisheries

11.4 – 11.6 Information

Joshua Vu6th Period

• Wetland areas have been destroyed because of urban development, farming, mineral, oil, and natural gas extraction.

• Wetlands are major filters of water pollution even though they are being destroyed.

• Because of rising sea levels, wetlands could be wiped out, degrading important biodiversity and diminishing economical services.

• One technique of preserving wetlands is mitigation banking, which allows for the destruction of a wetland if another is created or restored elsewhere.

• The prevention of wetland destruction is much more important than the restoration of wetlands.

• Invasive species such as sea lampreys and zebra mussels destroy the aquatic biodiversity by killing off many native species and stealing the niche of others.

• The development of dams in rivers have disrupted the life cycles of salmons, which has decreased their reproduction rates and reduced their population drastically.

• Sustainable management of commercial and sport fishes is very important in keeping their populations up.

• The 1968 National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act established protection to rivers with scenic, recreational, geological, wildlife, historical, and cultural values.

• In 2002, Edward O. Williams established priorities for the world’s ecosystems and species. These are, paraphrased, complete mapping out the terrestrial and aquatic species, preserve old-growth forests and cease logging, identify biodiversity hotspots and important ecosystem services, protect lakes and river systems, carry out ecological restoration projects worldwide, and make an incentive for conserving terrestrial and aquatic reserves.

CORE CASE STUDYGOLDEN RICE: GRAINS OF HOPE OR ILLUSION?

12.1 Poor: Developing countries, health problems caused by lack of food & poor nutrition•Food insecurity•Chronic undernutrition/ hunger•Chronic malnutrition•Macronutrients/ micronutrients•Iron, vitamin A, iodine

Relatively Rich: Developed countries, health problems caused by eating too much•Food security•Overnutrition

Obstacles for global food security are poverty, political upheaval, corruption, war, & harmful environmental impacts of food production •Famine

- 1999, scientists Ingo Potrykus and Beyer genetically engineered golden rice, rice that contains beta-carotene which the body can convert to vitamin A, by transferring snippets of DNA from common daffodil and soil bacterium.- Goal is to prevent vitamin A deficiency in developing countries but there could be risky environmental impacts

http://www.foodrenegade.com/gmo-golden-rice-panacea-or-hoax/

http://venusvision.com/how-to-eat-for-health-and-pleasure/food-balance/

12.3

12.2Mix of industrialized & traditional agriculture increased crop production•High-input vs. low-input agriculture•Pastures; rangelands; feedlots•Wheat; rice; corn •Monocultures•Plantation agriculture, cash crops•Hydroponics•Traditional subsistence agriculture•Traditional intensive agriculture•Polyculture•Slash-and-burn agriculture•Sustainable cultivation•First/second green revolution•Multicropping•Agribusiness•Gene revolution; artificial selection; crossbreeding•Genetic engineering GMOs/transgenic organisms

Meat, fish, & shellfish supplies increased by both traditional & industrialized methods•Confined animal feedlot operations•Fisheries•Aquaculture•Blue revolution•Polyaquaculture

Future food production limited by environmental impacts: soil erosion/ degradation, desertification, water/air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, & degradation/destruction of biodiversity•Salinization•Waterlogging•Marginal land•GM food•Chimeraplasty•Cerrado•Agrobiodiversity •Seed banks/seed morgues

SCIENCE FOCUS: Soil is the Base of Life on Land

http://www.unifiedlifestyle.com/blog/2011/07/11/i-said-hay-bartender-part-1/feedlot-pic/

http://soilhorizons.info/

Chapter 12.4-12.6 Review

By Santiago Vargas

12.4 How can we protect crops from pests more sustainably

• The three basic pesticides used are insecticides (used for killing insects), herbicides ( used for killing weeds), fungicides ( used for killing fungus), and rodenticides (used for killing rats and mice).

• First-generation pesticides: Pesticides used with natural chemicals borrowed from plants. Ex. Nicotine sulfate from tobacco leaves

• Second-generation pesticides: Pesticides made with chemicals made in laboratories. Ex. DDT

• DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was the most widely used pesticide created by Paul Muller. However, biologist Rachel Carson revealed the harmful effects of DDT on humans in her book, Silent Spring. Since 1970, DDT has been banned in the U.S., although many countries still use it

• Persistence is the length of time pesticides remain deadly in the environment.

• It has been found that pesticide use hasn’t reduced U.S. crop losses to pests because of genetic resistance and the reduction of natural predators. Today, 37% of crops are lost to pests today compared to the 31% that was lost in the 1940s.

• Integrated pest management: The combined use of biological, chemical, and cultivation methods in proper sequence and timing to keep the size of a pest population below the size that causes economically unacceptable loss of a crop or livestock animal.

• Ways to protect crops from pests more sustainably:

• 1.Let nature do the work• 2.Use pesticides• 3.Laws and treaties• 4.Biological, ecological and other alternatives to pesticides• 5.Integrated pest management

12.5 How can we improve food security?

• There are three main approaches the government uses to influence food production:o Allowing the government to set the prices on foodo Allowing governments to provide Subsidieso Letting the marketplace make its own decisions

• Studies found by UNICEF (United Nations Childrens Fund) find that up to ⅔ of nutrition related childhood deaths could be prevented with an annual average cost of $5-$10 per child with the following measures:o Immunizing children against childhood diseaseso Encouraging breastfeeding (not including mothers with AIDS)o Preventing dehydration by giving infants a mixture of sugar and salt in a

glass of watero Preventing blindness by giving children a vitamin A capsule twice a yearo Providing family planning services to help mothers space births at least 2

years aparto Increase education for women

Preventing health problems in children can increase food security

12.6 How can we produce food more sustainably?Methods of soil conservation:

•Terracing- A way to grow food on steep slopes without depleting topsoil achieved by converting steeply sloped land into a series of broad nearly level terraces that run across the land’s contours retaining water for the crps at each level and reducing soil erosion from runoff

•Contour Planting- Plowing and planting crops in rows across the slope of the land rather that up and down. Each row acts like a small dam to hold topsoil and slow runoff

•Strip cropping- planting alternating strips of a row crop and another crop called a cover crop that completely covers the soil. Water runoff and topsoil eroded from the row crop, is trapped by the cover crop

•Alley cropping or agroforestry- One or more crops are planted together in alleys of trees and shrubs, which provide shade. The shade helps prevent water loss through evaporation helps and slowly retains and releases soil moisture, which can be helpful during a long drought.

Windbreaks- Trees are planted around crop fields to reduce wind erosion. This also helps the soil to retain moisture, provides wood for fuel, increase crop productivity by 5-10% and provide habitats for birds, pest eating and pollinating insects, and other animals.

Ways to add nutrients to soil:

•Organic fertilizers- animal manure, green manure, compost

•Crop rotation to preserve nutrients- corn and cotton deplete nitrogen while legumes add nitrogen.

•Manufactured inorganic fertilizers- contain compounds that add nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium but do not add nitrogen phosphorous, and potassium. These do not give the soil organic material and need to be watched constantly in case of pollution.

•Conservation tillage farming-A method of farming that uses no machinery and leaves the crop residue on the surface to decompose which helps store carbons and nutrients in the soil. However it is very expensive, increases use of herbicides, and cannot be used for all cropsMain ways to produce food more sustainably:

•Reduce soil erosion

•Restore soil fertility

•Reduce soil salinization and desertification

•Practice more sustainable aquaculture

•Produce mean more efficiently and humanely

•Move down the food chain and slow population growth

•Shift to more sustainable agriculture

•Buy locally grown food

APES Review: 13.1-13.3

hayley

Water Resources: 13.1

• Freshwater is an irreplaceable resources that we are managing poorly: about 1.6 million people die from waterborne diseases, diarrhea, typhoid fever, and hepatitis

• Most of the Earth’s Freshwater is not available to us: about .024%• Interfere with hydrologic cycle when we destroy wetlands• One of the most important sources is from groundwater• Aquifers: underground caverns and porous layers of sand, gravel, or

bedrock through which groundwater flows• Excessive depletion of freshwater with decrease the resources…

could possibly result in massive demand and dehydration• Most water resources are owned by governments and run as

publicly owned resources

Extracting Groundwater: 13.2• Most aquifers are renewable sources unless their

water becomes contaminated or is removed faster than it is replenished by rainfall.

• The United States withdraws groundwater four times faster than it is replenished

• Pulling from groundwater near the coast can contaminate the water by pulling saltwater into freshwater aquifers. Makes it undrinkable

• Sinkhole: large craters that form when the roof of an underground cavern collapses after being drained of the groundwater if supports in it

Building Dams• Dam: a structure built across a river to control the river’s water

flow. After a river is dammed, the river’s flow creates an artificial lake (resevoir)

• 800,000 dams worldwide, 45,000 of them are large dams• One-fourth of the world’s dams produce about 20% of the world’s

electricity• Flooding has displace 40-80 million people from their homes• One-fifth of the world’s freshwater fish and plant species are either

extinct or endangered primarily because dams have destroyed habitats

• Colorado River has begun to disappear/not reach parts of the United States

Transferring water • 13.4-13.7• Very energy expensive• Makes people more likely to live and farm in arid or semi arid areas. • Examples: California water project and China’s South- North project.

(p. 331)

Desalinization• Very expensive• Pumping water to desalinization plants kills many marine organisms• Creates large amounts of waste water that contain large amounts of

salt and other minerals• Most plants are in Saudi Arabia.

• (Abraham)

Water Waste• 65- 70% of all water that is withdrawn is lost on evaporation and leaks. • Water is underpriced because of government subsidies that provide

water at bellow market prices. • A lot of water is wasted in irrigation- nearly 60% of all water used does

not reach crops.

Flooding• People like to live in floodplains because of the fertile soil and

generally flat land. This creates a high risk of injury and damage from flooding.

• Removal of vegetation that helps to hold soil together can cause major landslides and increase the cost of flooding.

• Wetlands reduce the impact of flooding, but they are being drained by humans in order to create more land for development.

14-4 How long will Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Last? (JESUS)

•United States, Canada, Russia, South Africa, and Australia supply the most nonrenewable mineral resources used by modern societies. •United States, Germany, and Russia consume about 57% of the most widely used metals.•Strategic metal resources ---manganese, cobalt, chromium, and platinum-- are essential for a country’s economy and strength.•The future supply of nonrenewable minerals depends on two factors: the actual or potential supply of the mineral and the rate at which we use it. •Minerals can be Economically depleted- cost more than it is worth to find, extract, transport, and process the remaining deposits. •There are five alternatives- recycle or reuse existing supplies, waste less, use less, find a substitute, or do without.•Depletion time- the time it takes to use up a certain proportion (usually 80%) of the services of a mineral at a given rate of use. •Most minerals prices are subsidized by the government and if there were no subsidizes recycling and reuse would increase, and minerals would be replaced with less environmentally harmful substitutes •In-place or in situ mining- the using of microorganisms to extract minerals•Biomining- genetic engineering of bacteria that removes desired metals from ores while leaving the surrounding environment undisturbed.• Hydrothermal ore deposits- formed from solidified magma that mixes with sea water to create metal compounds such as sulfides, silver, zinc, and copper .• Manganese nodules- potential source of metals from the ocean floor that cover 25-50% of the Pacific Ocean.

14.1• Geology is the science devoted to the study of

dynamic processes occurring on the earth’s surface and in its interior.

• The earth’s interior is separated into three major concentric zones, the core, the mantle, and the crust.

• Convection cells or currents move large volumes of rock and heat in loops within the mantle like gigantic conveyer belts.

• The typical moving speed of the tectonic plates is about the rate at which fingernails move.

14.2

• There are three major types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rock.

• Sedimentary rocks is made of dead plant and animal remains and existing rocks that are weathered and eroded into tiny particles.

• Igneous rocks form below or on the earth’s surface when magma wells up from the earth’s surface when magma wells up from the earth’s upper mantle or deep crust and then cools and hardens.

• Metamorphic rocks for when a preexisting rock is subjected to high temperatures.

14.3• Mineral resource is a concentration of naturally occurring

material from the earth’s crust that can be extracted and processed into useful products.

• We know how to find and extract more than 100 minerals from earth. (ex. Fossil fuel, metallic materials, and nonmetallic materials.)

• These are classified as nonrenewable resources because they take so long to form.

• Nonrenewable metal and nonmetal mineral resources are important parts of our lives.

• Ways to remove mineral deposits: surface mining, subsurface mining, open-pit mining, strip mining, area strip mining, contour strip mining, and mountaintop removal.

15.1 &15.2

William Ying

15.1

• Non-renewable resources are crucial to our current existence.

• 82% of commercial energy comes from nonrenewable resources such as oil and coal.

• Three largest consumers are Us, China, and Europe accounting for more than half the world’s consumption of fossil fuels.

15.2

• Petroleum or crude oil forms from the decaying remains of organisms.

• Can be refined for various uses such as diesel oil, greases and waxes, asphalt, heating oil, aviation fuel, and gasoline depending on how it is heated.

15.2 Cont.

• OPEC or the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries own about 60% of the world’s oil.

• Oil sand is a heavy oil with high sulfur contents, and in larger amounts than oil.

• However it has a low energy yield and very high environmental impacts.

Chapters 16.1-16.3janette

IMPORTANT POINTS

• The advantages of improving energy efficiency to the environment

• The economy though prolonged fossil fuel supplies

• Low cost reduction of pollution• Improved local economics• Reduced oil imports• High net energy yield

MORE POINTS

• The units of power (joule, kilowatt, BTU)• Energy sources (wind, biomass, hydropower,

geothermal, nuclear, coal, and solar cells)• Know the different types of energies and

what they do• The state of California is the most efficient

state with energy use

16.4-16.6 (CHARLIE)• Hydropower is energy that can be produced through the use of dams and

reservoirs• Hydropower is the worlds leading renewable resource. • Advantages of hydropower- high net energy yield, long life span, no CO2

emissions during operation, flood control, more water for irrigation, development of reservoirs.

• Disadvantages of Hydropower- high construction cost, high environmental impact, high carbon dioxide emissions from biomass decay, flooding of natural areas, conversion of land habitats to lake habitats, danger of dam collapsing, people relocation, limits fish populations below dam, and decrease flow of silt.

• The use of wind to turn turbines and produce electricity is called wind power.

16.4-16.6 (continued.)• Advantages of wind power- high net energy yield and efficiency, low cost

and environmental impact, no carbon dioxide emissions, and quick construction.

• Disadvantages of wind power- need for winds and backup systems, high land use, visual and noise pollution, interfering with bird migrations.

• Biomass is the use of combustible organic materials to mostly create heat and cook, but also for industrial processes and the generation of electricity.

• Advantages of biomass- potential supplies, moderate costs, no net carbon increase, and use of agricultural, timber, and urban wastes.

• Disadvantages of Biomass- nonrenewable resource if not harvested sustainably, moderate to high environmental impact, low photosynthetic efficiency, soil erosion, water pollution, and loss of wildlife.

Devin Dunn4-15-13

Mrs. BarberAP Environmental Science

Ch. 16.7 – 16.9 Review

16.7

Geothermal Energy as a fuel source?Geothermal Energy - What is it? A: The heat stored in soil underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s mantle.How is it used most commonly?A: Known as a geothermal heat pump system, the natural energy can heat and cool a house by exploiting the temperature differences between the Earth’s surface and underground, almost anywhere in the world, at depths of 3-6 meters. Trade – Offs

AdvantagesVery High EfficiencyModerate net energy at accessible sitesLower CO2 emissions than fossil fuelsLow cost at favorable sitesDisadvantagesScarcity of Suitable sitesCan be depleted if used too rapidlyCO2 emissionsNoise and Odor (H2S)

16.8- Hydrogen as an energy source?* Hydrogen fuel holds great promise for powering cars and generating electricity, but to be environmentally beneficial, it would have to be produced without the use of fossil fuels.Trade - OffsAdvantagesCan be produced from plentiful of waterLow environmental impactEasier to store than electricityNontoxicDisadvantagesNot found as H2 in natureEnergy is needed to produce fuelHigh costs(that may eventually go down)No fuel distribution system in place

16.9- Make a transition into a more sustainable energy future?* We can make a transition to a more sustainable energy future if we greatly improve energy efficiency, use a mix of renewable energy resources, and include environmental costs in the market prices of all energy resources.SolutionsImprove Energy efficiencyIncrease fuel-efficiency standards for vehicles, building, and appliancesMandate government purchases of efficient vehicles and other devices More Renewable EnergyGreatly increase use of renewable energyInclude environmental costs in prices for all energy resourcesReduce Pollution and Health RiskCut coal use 505 by 2020Phase out coal subsidiesCase Study – California uses less energy per person than any other state in U.S, by promoting use of cleaner, renewable sources of power.

By: Anas Khan

20.1-20.3

20.1• Water Pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical

change in water quality that harms living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.

• Point sources discharge pollutants at specific locations through drain pipes, ditches, or sewer lines into bodies of surface water

• Nonpoint sources are broad, and diffuse areas, rather than points, from which pollutants enter bodies of surface water.

• Agricultural activities are the leading cause of water pollution.

• One of the major problems of water pollution is infectious diseases.

20.2• Streams can cleanse themselves if we do not overload

them with pollutants.• The breakdown of biodegradable wastes by bacteria

depletes dissolved oxygen and creates an Oxygen Sag Curve.

• 1970’s legislation increased number and quality of Water Treatment Plants.

• Ohio Cuyahoga river is a good example of water pollution cleanup.

• 500 of the world’s rivers are heavily polluted, most of them running through developing countries.

20.2 (continued)• India’s Ganges river is a holy symbol in Hinduism. However,

this river is very heavily polluted as more and more people throw the deads ashes and trash into the river.

• It also provides water to millions of people.• Lakes and rivers are more vulnerable to contamination.• Eutrophication is the name given to the natural nutrient

enrichment of a shallow lake, estuary, or slow moving stream, mostly from runoff or plant nutrients.

• An Oligotrophic lake is low in nutrients and its water is clear.

• Cultural Eutrophication is the acceleration of plant nutrients in a lake through human activities.

•The End