CHAPTER 10 : SCHOOLS

Adolescent Psychology

Chapter Overview

Educational StrategiesSchool transitionsSocial Contexts of SchoolsExceptional Adolescents

Learning In Adolescence

School is an important context for learning Academic learning & social arena

Direct Instruction Approach Teacher-centered; Teacher direction & control Mastery of academic skills High expectations for students Maximum time spent on learning tasks Continues to be used in many schools

Constructivist Approaches Interest in school reform Learner-centered Learner as active participant

Constructivist Approaches

Cognitive constructivist Piaget’s theory active, cognitive construction of knowledge &

understanding. teacher: provide support for students to explore their

world & develop understanding

Social constructivist Vygotsky’s theory importance of collaboration with others to produce

knowledge & understanding. Teacher: create many opportunities for students to learn

with the teacher & with peers in co-constructing understanding.

The Debate

Constructivists argue that direct instruction Makes adolescence passive learners Does not adequately challenge Does not promote creativity

Direct Instruction enthusiasts argue that constructivists

Do not give enough attention to content of subject areas Too vague

Many educators & educational psychologists believe that a combination of these may be most effective

APA’s Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

APA developed 14 learner-centered principles to guide child and adolescent education

Divided into 4 categories1. Cognitive & metacognitive factors2. Motivational & instructional factors3. Developmental & social factors4. Individual difference factors

Schools & Accountability

How effective are schools? Who needs to be acountable? State-mandated tests have taken on a more powerful role

Learning objective No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

Federal legislation; Signed into law in 2002 Schools & school districts accountable for the success or failure of

their students Criticisms of NCLB

A single score from a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress and competence represents a very narrow aspect of students’ skills (Lewis, 2006).

The tests schools are using to assess achievement and progress as part of NCLB don’t measure such important skills as creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, and social skills (Ercikan, 2006)

Criticisms of NCLB

A single score from a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress & competence?? (Lewis, 2006)

Tests don’t measure creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, & social skills (Ercikan, 2006)

Too much class time “teaching to the test” So are these tests & procedures mandated by NCLB

the best ones for achieving high standards for education? (Houston, 2005)

How could we make schools more accountable?How could we make students/parents more

accountable?

Transitions in Schooling

Change is stressfulTop-dog phenomenonMove toward personal independence &

responsibilityGood student adjustment & high self esteem

Fewer transitions Extra-curricular activity involvement High quality friendships Parental support

Transition: Elementary School to Middle School

Emergence of junior high schools in the 1920s & 1930s

Justified on the basis of physical, cognitive, & social changes that characterize early adolescence

Influenced by early onset of pubertyOccurs simultaneously with many other changes:

Puberty Formal operational thought Responsibility & independence Impersonal school structure Heterogeneous set of peers Focus on assessment Top-dog phenomenon

Improving Middles Schools

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1998) recommended core social policy for education

Developing smaller “communities” – lessen impersonal nature

Lowering student-to-counselor ratios (100s:1 10:1) Involving parents & community leaders Develop better curricula Team-teach in flexible blocks, integrating several

disciplines Boost students’ health & fitness – access to public health

careSuccessful middle schools provide & promote…

Personal attention, involve parents, support rigorous instruction, & promote student health

American High Schools

Many high school graduates are poorly prepared for College demands of a modern, high-performance workplace

New mission for the 21st century addressed the following problems (National Commission on the High School Senior Year, 2001):

Better instruction to enable all students to graduate from high school & succeed in post-secondary education & careers

Need higher expectations for student achievement Example: senior year

U.S. high school students spend too much time working in low-level service jobs (14 to 20 hours a week)

Better communication & coordination between K-12 & above

Dropping Out of High School

Viewed as a serious educational & societal problem for many decades

Adolescents approach adult life with educational deficiencies

Dropping Out of High School

The Causes School-related problems Economic reasons Socioeconomic status Friends drop out Personal reasons

Reducing the Dropout Rate• Early detection of school-related difficulties• Get engaged with school in positive ways • Early reading programs, tutoring, counseling, & mentoring• Create caring environments & relationships, use block

scheduling, & offer community-service opportunities

Transition: High School to College

• Replays the top-dog phenomenon • More impersonal school structure• Peers from diverse backgrounds• Focus on assessment• Reduced contact with parents

Transition: College to Work

• Having a college degree is a strong asset • College graduates earn considerably more money in

their lifetimes…but often leave college in debt • Often a difficult transition• U.S. colleges: develop general skills rather than

vocationally specific skills• Many graduates: poorly prepared for specific jobs• Difficulty obtaining the type of job they desire, or any

job• Bouncing from one job to another not unusual

Social Context of Schools

• Social context differs at the different levels of school• Preschool:

• A protected environment; Limited social setting• Children interact with one or two teachers• Almost always female teachers• Modifies some patterns of behavior developed through family

experiences. • The Elementary School:

• Classroom is still the major context -- a social unit • Social expression is more complex• Teachers & peers have a prominent influence on children• The teacher symbolizes authority• The peer group becomes more salient

Social Context of School

• Middle or Junior High School• School environment increases in scope & complexity.• Social field expands-- school as a whole rather than the

classroom• Socially interact with many different teachers & peers

from a range of social & ethnic backgrounds• A greater mix of male & female teachers• Extracurricular activities, clubs, community

• High School• School as a social system

School Size & Class Size

• Increased size of secondary schools in the United States:

• Increasing urban enrollments• Decreasing budgets

• Is bigger better?• No systematic relation between school size & academic

achievement has been found• More prosocial & possibly less antisocial behavior occur

in small schools (Rutter & others, 1979)

• Substantial reduction in class size does improve student achievement (Blatchford & Mortimore, 1994; Finn, 2002)

Managing Classroom Climate

• Strategies for creating a positive classroom environments

1. Using an authoritative strategy2. Effectively managing the group’s activities

Strategies of Classroom Management• Authoritative

• Encourages independent thinking & doing• Consistent monitoring; caring attitude; limit setting• Verbal give and take

• Authoritarian• Restrictive & punitive• Focus on keeping order, not on learning

• Permissive• Autonomy with little guidance, boundaries, or support• No safety

Well Managed Classroom

Fosters learning Clear rules & procedures – the safety of boundaries Organization of groups Pacing & monitoring activities

Prevents academic & emotional problems from developing

Activities absorb & motivate studentsStudents busy with active & challenging tasksPromotes motivationConsider person-environment fit

Teachers & Parents

• Teachers • Enthusiasm, ability to plan, poise, adaptability, warmth,

flexibility• Awareness of individual differences

• Parents & Schools• important role in the adolescent’s success in school

• family management practices (structure & organization)• Routine & achievement expectations• Positively related to grades & self-responsibility• Negatively to school-related problems (Taylor, 1996)

• Being involved in schooling

Peers & Bullying

• Structure of middle school•Peer Statuses• Status• Group activity -- witnesses

•Bullying• 1 in 3 • Loneliness• Difficulty making friends• Cyberbullying• Suicide, depression, health

problems, anxiety, sleep, etc.

Bullying

Verbal or physical bx intended to disturb someone less powerful

Boys, younger middle school students, students with disabilities

Victims: loneliness, difficulty making friendsBullies: low grades, smoke, drink alcohol

Bullying

Victims Short-term: depressed, disinterest in school, avoid

school Headaches, sleep problems, stomach pain, feeling tired Suicidal ideation; more likely to have health problems

Long-term: in adulthood Depression, low self-esteem

Bullies Short-term:

Depression, suicidal ideation; More likely to have health problems

Long-term: 60% -- 1 criminal conviction; 33% had 3 or more

Bullying & Prevention

School climate: high academic standards, parental involvement, effective discipline

Olweus Bullying Prevention www.colorado.edu/espv/blueprints

Bully-Proofing Your School www.sopriswest.com

Steps to Respect School wide approach, training staff & parents,

teaching students to recognize and not tolerate www.cfchildren.org

Bullying & Prevention

Get older peers to interveneDevelop school wide rules & post themForm friendship groups for victims of bullyingIncorporate anti-bullying messages into communityParents – reinforce positive behavior & appropriate

interpersonal interactionsIdentify early & use social skills trainingEncourage contact with helping professionalSchool programs to counteract bullyingModel interactions that do not include bullying or

aggression