Chapter 10

Chapter 10Wild Species and BiodiversityValue of Wild SpeciesEcosystem capitalSum of all the goods and services provided to human enterprises by natural systemsEstimated to be worth $41 trillion a year!

To maintain sustainability their integrity must be preservedMaintaining their resilience and biodiversity.Biological WealthAbout 2 million species of plants, animals, and microbes have been identified and classifiedScientists estimate that the total number of species on Earth ranges from 5 to 30 million.

Biodiversity Richness of living species Refers to species but can also include ecosystems, and the genetic diversity within a given speciesSpending the WealthAt least 500 plant and animal species have become extinct in the United States alone and thousands more are at riskTwo Kinds of ValueInstrumental valueA species or individual organism has instrumental value if its existence or use benefits some other entity.Usually anthropocentric, or beneficial to humansIntrinsic ValueWhen something has value for its own sake, that is, does not have to be useful to us to possess valuePhilosophical question and comes down to moral reasoningValue of Natural SpeciesSources for agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, and animal husbandrySources for medicines and pharmaceuticalsRecreational, aesthetic, and scientific valueIntrinsic value (value for their own sake)Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture, Animal HusbandryIn nature, both plants and animals are continuously subjected to natural selection. (only the fittest survive)Wild populations have numerous traits for competitiveness, resistance to parasites, tolerance to adverse conditionsPopulations grown under agricultural conditions tend to lose the wild traits because they are selected for production, not resilience

CultivatorsIn the process of breeding plants for maximum production, virtually all genetic variation is eliminatedThe cultivated population is commonly called a cultivar (cultivated variety) This indicates that is a highly selected strain of the original species with minimum genetic variationWild GenesTo maintain vigor in cultivars and to adapt them to different climates, plant breeders comb wild populations of related species for desired traits. Introduced by cross-breeding, or biotechnologyNew Food PlantsPotential for developing new cultivars will be lostHumans have used 7,000 existing plant speciesModern agriculture has tended to focus on about 30Of these species wheat, maize, and rice fulfill about 50% of the global food demand. New Food PlantsScientists estimate that 30,000 plant species with edible parts could be brought into cultivationIncrease production in environments that are less than idealEx winged bean of New GuineaRecently introduced into many developing countries and the legume has contributed significantly to improving nutritionThe Winged Bean. A climbing legume with edible pods, seeds, leaves, and roots this tropical species demonstrates the great potential of wild species for human uses

Sources for MedicineFor thousands of years, the indigenous people of Madagascar used rosy periwinkle in their medicineIn the 1960s, scientists extracted two chemicals from the plantVincristine, vinblastineChemicals that have revolutionized the treatment of childhood leukemia and Hodgkins diseaseTwo chemicals represent a $200-million-a-year industry

Sources for MedicineChinese star aniseYields fruits that are harvested to produce shikimic acidRaw material for making Tamiflu - treatment for influenza virusPaclitaxel (trade name Taxol Extract from a bark of the Pacific yewValuable for treating ovarian cancerEthnobotanyThe study of the relationships between plants and people3,000 plants have been identified as having anticancer propertiesThe search for drugs in the tropics has led to the creation of parks and reserves to promote the preservation of natural ecosystems.

Recreational, Aesthetic, and Scientific ValueRecreational and aesthetic activities support commercial interestsEcotourism whereby tourists visit a place in order to observe wild species or unique ecological sites represents the largest foreign-exchange enterprise in many developing countries

Intrinsic ValueUntil recently, Western philosophers argued that only humans were worthy of ethical considerationWestern philosophical tradition has been strongly anthropocentricIntrinsic value arguments center on animal rights and religionSaving Wild SpeciesChapter 10.2Game Animals in the United StatesGame Animals traditionally hunted for sport, meat, or pelts (commercial hunting)Earlier U.S. no restriction on huntingCaused a number of species to become extinct (great auk, heath hen, passenger pigeon) or near extinction (bison, wild turkey)Regulations were enacted in response to the declining numbers of organismsEstablished hunting seasons, bag limits, hired wardensRestoration efforts have successfully reestablished the wild turkey throughout the United States the hunting within carefully controlled limits now takes place

Backyard MenagerieCommon game animals such as deer, rabbits, doves, and squirrels are well adapted to rural and suburban environmentsTherefore adapted and protected from overhuntingBut, serious problems have emeregedProblems # of animals killed on roadways now exceeds the number killed by huntersAs rural areas are developed, more animals found on roadways are a serious hazard1 million animals become road-kill a day200 human fatalities occur annually as a consequenceHighway Overpasses. This wildlife overpass in Banff, British Columbia, facilitates wildlife traffic between the forests intersected by the highway.

ProblemsMany nuisance animals are thriving in highly urbanized areas, creating various health hazards2001, CDC reported 7,437 cases of rabid animals in the U.S.68% occurred in raccoons and skunksProblemsSome game animals have no predators except hunters and tend to reach population densities that push them into suburban habitats, where they cannot be hunted effectivelyWhite-tailed deerPest to gardeners, fruit nurseriesPublic health risk Lyme diseaseDisrupts ecosystem by over-foraging ProblemsSuburbanites have increasingly been attacked by cougars, bears, and alligators as urbanization encroaches on the wild.Over the past 100 ears, large carnivores have killed 142 people in the U.S., and half of these deaths have occurred in the last decade alone. Cougar on the Roof. As suburbs encroach on cougar habitats in the western United States, attacks on humans have become more numerous. This particular cougar on the roof of a home in a California suburb has been shot with a tranquilizer dart.

ProblemsCoyotes, which once roamed only in the Midwest, and western states, are now found in every state and are increasing in numbers.Highly adaptable predatorCoyotes will eat almost anything, including deer, cats, dogs, human garbage, and occasionally attack small childrenProblemsSuburban parks and lawns, college campuses, and golf courses have become home to exploding flocks of Canadian geese. Grazing herbivores consume large amounts of grass and defecate as often as every 8 minutesProtected by wildlife lawsHard to keep in control. Few predatorsProtecting Endangered SpeciesIn the 1800s, fashion was dictated by fancy hats. Egrets and other birds were hunted for their plumageBy the late 1800s, egrets were almost extinctIn 1886, the newly formed Audubon Society began a press campaign to shame feather wearersCampaign caught on and gradually attitudes changed and new laws followed. LaceyFlorida and Texas were the first to pass laws protecting plumed birds1900 Congress passed the Lacey ActForbidding interstate commerce in illegally killed wildlife, making it more difficult for hunters to sell their kill.Act has become the most important piece of legislation protecting wildlife from illegal killing or smuggling.Under this act the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) can bring federal charges against anyone violating a number of wildlife laws. Endangered Species Act of 1973ESA was reauthorized in 1988Provides protection for endangered and threatened speciesEndangered been reduced to the point where it is in imminent danger of becoming extinct if protection is not providedThreatened judge to be in jeopardy but not on the brink of extinction

ESA of 1973Law specifies substantial fines for killing, trapping, uprooting, modifying significant habitats of, or engaging in commerce in the spices or its parts of a listed endangered or threatened speciesESA is administered by the FWS for terrestrial and freshwater species and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for marine and anadromous species3 Crucial Elements in Designating Species as Threatened or Endangered1 ListingBased on the best available information and must not take into consideration any economic impact the listing might have3 Crucial Elements in Designating Species as Threatened or Endangered2 Critical HabitatWhen a species is listed, the agency must also designate as crucial habitat the areas where the species is currently found or where it could likely spread as it recovers 1995 Supreme Court made it clear that federal authority to conserve critical habitat extended to private lands.

3 Crucial Elements in Designating Species as Threatened or Endangered3 Recovery PlansRequired to develop recovery plans that are designed to allow listed species to survive and thrive. Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

Examples of Endangered Species

ESA1,301 U.S. Species are currently listed for protection under the actRecovery plans are in place for 1,063 of them475 species have designated critical habitatsUp for reauthorization in 1992Has been living on a year-to-year budget due to politcal conflictsConflicting ValuesOften, not much data is available Rare species are poorly known or seldom studiedCritics believe act doesnt go far enoughProtection is not provided until the species is listedCritical habitat puts unwanted burdens on property ownerssaving bugs and bushes over humans and economic growth

American Peregrine FalconRecently removed from list Both the falcons and American bald eagles (still a threatened species) were driving to extremely low numbers because of the use of DDT as a pesticide from the 1940s-1960sThinned the birds eggshells that led to nesting failures in the two species and other predatory birds

Whooping CraneFlock was reduced to 14 cranes in 1939Due to the commercial exploitation of feathers. Migratory wild flock is increasing steadily and has reached a population of 217 individuals.Taught new migratory path by scientists

Spotted OwlBecame a focal point in the battle to save some of the remaining old-growth forests in the Pacific NorthwestOnly found in these forestsFWS listed owl in June of 1990Controversy followed pitting environmentalists against the timber industry Klamath RiverAlong Oregon-California boarder in Pacific NorthwestSupplies water to Upper Klamath Lake and is the source of irrigation water for 250,000 acres of farmlandIn 2001 federal authorities allocated almost all of the water to protected threatened salmon instead of using it for irrigationSection 10.3Biodiversity and Its Decline

The Decline of BiodiversityAt least 500 species native to the U.S. are known to have become extinct since the early days of colonization100+ were vertebratesBackground extinction rate is less than one species every thousands of years world wideGlobally 726 species of animals and 90 species of plants have become extinctThe state of U.S. Species Fully one third of over 20,000 species of plants and animals surveyed were found by biologists to be at risk of extinction (source: data from the Nature Conservancy and NatureServe.)

Species Extinction Rates the distant past refers to average extinction rates from the fossil record; the recent past is known extinctions over the last few hundred years; future rate is based on models that assess the trends of change in factors affecting biodiversity from 1970 - 2050

Sources of Evidence for DeclineCommercial fishing downDecrease in waterfowl populationsDisappearance of song birdsOverall decline of songbirdsReasons for the DeclineHabitat ChangeGreatest source of loss is the physical alteration of habitats through the process of conversion, fragmentation, and simplificationHabitat destruction is responsible for 36% of the known extinctions and is a key factor in the currently observed population declinesConversionNatural areas are converted to farms, housing subdivisions, shopping malls, marinas, and industrial centersGlobal forest cover has been reduced by 40% alreadyDecline in North American songbird populations has been traced to loss of winter forest habitat in Central and South America and increasing fragmentation of summer forest in North AmericaFragmentationNatural landscapes generally have large patches to habitat that are well connected to other, similar patchesHuman-dominated landscapes consist of a mosaic of different land usesReducing habitats creates a greater proportion of edgesBeneficial to some species (crows, magpies, jays) but detrimental to others (Kirtlands wrabler)Fragmentation Development usually leads to the breaking up of natural areas, resulting in a mosaic of habitats that may not support local populations of species

SimplificationHuman use of habitats often simplifies themRemoving fallen logs and dead trees from woodlands for firewood diminishes an important microhabitat on which several species are dependantWhen a forest is managed for the production of a few or one species of tree, biodiversity declinesIntrusionTelecommunication towers present dangers to migratory birdsExotic SpeciesResponsible for an estimated 39% of animal extinctions since 1600Brown Tree Snake accidentally introduced to Guam, has decimated bird life on the island. Often lacking in natural predators, islands are especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of exotic species

Aquaculture1/3rd of all seafood consumed worldwide is produced by aquacultureThe farming of shellfish, seaweed and fishOver 100 species of aquatic plants animals are raised in aquaculture, most of which are not native to the farming locationsOverexploitationRemoving organisms faster than they can reproduce will lead to their extinctionOveruse is responsible for 23% of extinctionsFueled by greed, ignorance, and desperation