Chapter 1THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF

LITERATURE AND STUDIES

• Introduction

• Background of the Study

• Review of Literature and Studies

• Synthesis

• Theoretical / Conceptual Framework

• Research Paradigm

• Statement of the Problem / Objectives

• Hypothesis

• Significance of the Study

• Scope and Delimitation of the Study

• Definition of Terms

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Introduction

This part encapsulates the whole study or to put it more simply, what the study is all about. A good introduction is backed-up by a relevant/familiar related literature and studies that serve

as a strong conceptual groundwork of the study.

It represents the surrounding situations or problems that prompted the researcher to undertake the study.

Effective introduction shows the actual scenario related to the problem in focus.

Good starters may be any of the following: relevant statistical data; an attention-grabbing expression or timely quotation, a personal experience, a piece of

related information from literature and studies reviewed and others.

The introductory statement must be eye-catching.

The issues relating to the investigation should be quoted or documented to encourage readers to read on.

The study should also be recent.

The last part of the study is a brief situational analysis to present information on the problem and what prompts the

researcher to venture into such a study.

The analysis attempts to show that the study is relevant and contributes to the existing fund of knowledge.

Background of the Study

This section is optional, the researcher explains the approach to be used/employed to solve the problem. The introduction usually

ends with the last or closing paragraph stating the primary purpose of the study or the title of the thesis itself.

There should be a theme in writing the background of the study. The theme serves an outline so that there is continuity of ideas. The theme is based on the important variables of the study, their

scope, nature and characteristics.

Furthermore, the presentation must be from macro to micro, sometimes known as the deductive approach to data

presentation.

Review of Literature and Studies

Review of literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. Related studies, on the other hand, are

studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is

related or has some bearing or similarity.

The review of literature is divided into two parts:

(1) Professional Literature and

(2) Related Studies.

All related ideas, concepts, theories and principles are to be reviewed to support the investigation.

The term “related” in the title is deleted because all reviewed literature has significant relationships or have

a direct bearing on the investigation.

Professional literature comes from published materials like books, journals, magazines,

pamphlets, etc., while related studies are from unpublished materials like theses, research

reports and dissertations.

Some writers prefer to review the literature first before framing the introduction, theoretical

framework, statement of the problem, scope, delimitation and research methodology.

Advantages: 

• It helps the researcher look for possible theories, concepts or principles to support his investigation.

• It is essential in formulating a sound research problem or research title, hypotheses, assumptions, etc.

• It enlightens the researcher as to the direction of the study.

• It proves that the study is researchable and possesses novelty.

• It helps to identify the statistical instruments to be used in the study.

• It serves as a guide to writing the findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Characteristics:• The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.

• Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.

• Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.

• Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable.

• Review materials must not be too few nor too many.

Sources:• Primary Sources:

• Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references,

• Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and other publications.

• Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.

• Unpublished theses and dissertations.

• The Constitution, and laws and statutes of the land.

• Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and departments, especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and the Department of Education Culture and Sports, Commission on Higher Education Technical and Skills Development Authority and other academic government institutions.

• Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.

• Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political, etc., from the government and other entities.

Secondary, and Tertiary Sources of Information:

• Experimentation

• Firs hand investigation: the interview and the questionnaire

• Doctoral dissertations and monographs in professional journals

• Letters, diaries, and autobiographies

• Original creative work in art and literature

• Reports of governments and their agencies: national, regional, provincial, city and municipal

• Annual reports of research foundations, universities, and corporations

• Newspapers

• Secondary sources are the reports of a person who relates the testimony of an actual witness or, or participant in an event.

• The writer of the secondary sources was not on the scene of the event, but merely reports what the person who was these said or wrote.

• Most history textbooks and encyclopedias are examples of secondary sources, for they are often several times removed from the original, firsthand account of events.

• Tertiary sources are those compiled from, or based on, secondary source material.

• Many textbooks are examples of third hand information.

• Since textbooks often have simplified treatment, concise entries, and broad coverage, they are considered acceptable reference tools.

The Mechanics of Note Taking:

• Best (1981) classifies reading-reference notes under four principal categories:

 • Quotation• Paraphrase• Summary• Evaluation

• Cards for note taking purposes vary in size. There are 3” x 5” cards, 4”x 6” cards, and 5” x 8” cards.

• The researcher should select the size of the cards which is suitable for his purposes and needs.

• In the absence of cards, half sheets of typing paper may be used.

Methods for taking notes:

• Skim the reference source before copying any notes.

• A bird’s-eye view is essential before one can decide what material to record and use.

• Selecting the most significant material is an art to be cultivated.

• Use 4” x 6” cards. They are easily sorted by subject headings, and are large enough to include a reasonable amount of material.

• Some students prefer 5” x 8” cards, which are less convenient to carry but provide more space for notes.

• File each note card under a definite topic or heading.

• Place the subject heading at the top of the card for convenient filing.

• A complete bibliographic citation should be placed at the bottom of the note card.

• If a book has been used, the call number should be indicated to facilitate library collection in the future.

• Include only one topic on a card. This makes organization of notes flexible. If the notes are lengthy, use consecutively numbered cards, and slip a rubber band around them before filing.

• Be sure that notes are complete and clearly understandable, for they are not likely to be used for some time after they have been copied.

• Distinguish clearly between a summary, a direct quotation of the author, a reference to the author’s source, and an evaluative statement.

• Don’t plan to recopy or type your notes. It wastes time and increases possibility of error and confusion. Copy your notes carefully the first time.

• Keep a supply of note cards with you at all times, so that you can jot down ideas that come to you while waiting, riding the bus, or listening to a lecture or discussion.

• Be careful not to lose your notes. As soon as they are copied, file them in a card index box. If you must carry them with you, use the 4” x 6” or 5” x 8” accordion file folder, and be sure that your name and address is clearly printed on it.

• Keep a permanent file of your notes. You may find the same notes useful in a number of courses or in writing a number of reports.

Guide to Preparing the Review of Literature

• For the review of literature you may need to visit a number of libraries for articles related to your investigation.

• At the library, look into the card catalogs for titles of articles, books, monographs and documents. Write the call numbers of these materials, and if necessary, ask the help of the librarian.

• Index cards can help you organize your materials.

• On these cards, write the names of authors, titles of the books, sources, year of publication, publisher and place of publication.

• If the materials are unpublished indicate authors, titles, and classify if thesis or dissertation, the college or university where the study was made, year and page, etc.

Author: Juan Dela Cruz Publisher: ISPSC PressBook: Educational Planning Dev’t. Place: Ilocos SurPage: 312 – 315 Year: 2001

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Author: Juan Dela Cruz Year: 2003Type: M.A. Thesis Pages:College/University: Ilocos Sur Polytechnic State UniversityPlace: Tagudin, Ilocos Sur

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

• Refrain from copying entire chapters without proper documentation or acknowledgements. Plagiarism is punishable by law.

• If you are a third party, you need to acknowledge the original author and the second party if you include their views, findings and articles in your study.

• Make a related study on the needs and relevance of your investigation.

• If you wish to combine professional and related studies, make a theme of your review based on the important variables of the study.

• A thematic approach to writing a review of related literature makes it logical, systematic and convenient to the researcher.

Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies:

By author or writer

In this method the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have the same meaning, are explained or discussed

separately and cited in the footnote with their respective authors or writers.

 

Examples:

According to Enriquez (1981), praise helps much in learning…

 

By Topic.

In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the same topic, the topic is

discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers. This is a summary of their opinions. This

is to avoid separate and long discussion of the same topic.

Examples:

It has been found out that praise is an important aid in the learning of children (Enriquez, 1981).

 

Chronological.

Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according to the year were written. Materials which were

written earlier should be cited first before those which were written later.

This can be done especially when citation is author or written. If citation is by topic, chronological citation can be done in

the footnote.

What to Cite:

It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions in

related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be discussed. Generally, such

findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions are summarized, paraphrased, or

synthesized.

Quoting a Material:

• A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial and is not too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and right sides of the paper but without any quotation marks.

Example:

Suppose the following is a quotation: said Enqiquez,

 

“Praise is an important factor in children’s learning. It encourages them to study their lessons harder. Praise, however, should be given very appropriately”.

 

The Evaluation of Material:

• Accuracy and Dependability

• Up-to-date

• Suitability for Specific Requirements

• Authority

• Scope

• Treatment and Style

• Arrangement

• Illustrations, Tables and Diagrams

• Author

• Publisher

Synthesis

• The review of related literature should conclude with a brief summary of the literature and its implications.

• This consists of 1 or 2 paragraphs which discuss in brief how similar or different the previously read and included literatures are to the current study.

Theoretical / Conceptual Framework

• A research study should be supported with various theories and concepts, to show that the study is researchable on a scientific basis.

• The theories relative to the investigation provide directions on undertaking the study.

• The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the body.

• It serves as a guide in conducting the investigation.

• Theories are formulated after reviewing related literature.

• In looking for theories, you must be organized and logical because you are gathering data for Chapter II (Review of Related Literature) of your study.

• From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a theoretical scheme for his research problem.

• This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of research hypothesis.

• After incorporating the theories and concepts, the conceptual framework is made.

• These concepts are presented in the form of a paradigm or model showing the steps or processes to be used in the study.

• A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework.

• It depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.

• Independent variables are the input variables; in descriptive research, they are not manipulated.

• They are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates in his or her attempts to ascertain their relationship to observed phenomena.

Variables

Are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls, or

observes.

• Moderator variables are the secondary input variables, which affect or influence the independent variable.

• The dependent variable is the outcome of the study. They are the conditions or characteristics that appear, disappear, or change as the experimenter introduces, removes, or changes independent variables.

Research Paradigm

This part is presented in figure form as the model of the research study.

The figure shows the interrelationships of the variables of the study: independent and dependent; variates and co-

variates; Input-Process-Output (IPO);and in experimental studies: the pre-test/post-test and other

researcher-made or crafted paradigm.

Statement of the Problem

After the title is approved, the statement of the main problem and sub-problems of the study

may now be made.

Guidelines in formulating the general problem and the specific sub-problems or

specific questions:

• The major problem of the study can be stated by briefly pointing out the objectives, the subject and the coverage as well as the time frame.

• Specify the sub-problems of the main problems.

• Include all possible components under the sub-problems of the study.

• State the sub-problems in either interrogative or declarative form. If the study is experimental, it is advisable to state it in the declarative form.

• You should also have advance information on the instrument to be used for data gathering. This will help you prepare the methodology of the study.

• The statement of the problem must be brief, clear, specific and relevant.

 

Sources of Problems:

• Actual problems encountered.

• Technological changes and curricular developments.

• The graduate academic experience.

• Consultation.

• Specialization.

• Analysis of an area of knowledge.

• Consideration of existing practices and needs.

• Repetition or extension of investigation.

• “Off-shoots” of studies under way.

Hypothesis

• A hypothesis is a working guide in research, the expected outcome of the study.

• Hypothesis is defined as an “educated guess.”

• Hypotheses are based on the statement of the problem and sub-problems. The number of sub-problems is also the number of hypotheses in the study.

• A hypothesis is a suggested answer to the problem.

• It may be defined as an expectation about events based on generalizations of the assumed relationship between variables.

A hypothesis has the following characteristics:

• It should conjuncture upon a relationship between two or more variables.

• It should be stated clearly and unambiguously in the form of a declarative sentence.

• It should be testable, that is, it should be possible to restate it in an operational form, which can then be evaluated based on data.

Types of Hypothesis:

• Null hypothesis. The use of the null hypothesis has become more common in research whether it be psychological, social, or educational.

• The reason for the use of the null hypothesis by researchers is that it is easier to disprove.

In using a null hypothesis, one assumes that no significant relationship or difference exists,

after which the researcher seeks to ascertain the improbability of such null hypothesis.

Alternative (or deductive) Hypothesis is considered the operational statement of the

research hypothesis.

Another type of hypothesis is the inductive hypothesis, which is based on observations

of behavior.

Significance of the Study

• There is a need to specify the direct beneficiaries of the study. Just like in the scope and delimitation of the study, its importance shall be pointed out especially to the end users to serve as a guide in identifying its value.

• This part of the chapter justifies the conduct of the research undertakings. It clarifies to the readers and future researchers the significance of the results of the study and their potential contribution to the discovery of new knowledge and policy implications.

• It includes the persons who will benefit from the results of the study who maybe mentioned individually or by cluster.

• In making the importance of the study, the macro to micro (deductive) approach, or from general to specific approach, is ideal.

Guidelines in explaining the significance of the study

• The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study must be discussed.

• Possible solutions to existing problems or improvements to unsatisfactory conditions.

• Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited. It must be shown who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position on account of the study.

• Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Scope of the study answers the “what,” “where,” “when,” “who,” and “why” of the study.

Sevilla, et. Al., (1992) states that the scope of the study sets the delimitation and establishes the

boundaries of the study.

• The scope refers to the area of the study usually large enough to be significant, but sufficiently narrowed down to allow careful treatment.

• The scope of the problem should state clearly the nature of any subject/s treated, their number and treatment received.

• Delimitation refers to the limits, parameters or boundaries of the study.

• These limitations may be with reference to place/s, population, instrument/s or test/s employed or even in the research design

• . In this portion of the research paper, the researcher clarifies with his/her reader/panel what is exactly covered by the study and what this particular coverage plays in the attainment of its purpose.

• Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher.

• Limitation of the study points out the variables not included. It discusses the reasons for excluding them in the investigation.

Guidelines in writing the Scope and Delimitations:

• A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

• The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.

• The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong.

• The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be large enough to make generalizations significant.

• The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were gathered.

• Possible implications. It must be discussed here that the implications include the possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications also include good points of a system, which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.

Definition of Terms

• Clear definitions as frames of reference composed of selected terminologies are needed and must be provided in the study.

• These terms are defined within the context of the study, i.e. variables of the study, which are to be measured by appropriate statistical instruments or based on dictionary meanings (conceptual definitions).

• They help the readers/panel of examiners understand what the researcher is driving at.

• Although conceptual definitions may be used, operational definitions are preferred.

• The terms are arranged in alphabetical order and defined in complete sentences.

• In qualitative research studies, definition of terms are optional, i.e. may not be required.

Operational definition of terms is when a researcher defines the terms as he uses them in the study.

They can be defined according to the variables included in the instrument of the study.

Conceptual definitions is mostly concerned with attributing authorities like books, magazines, etc., including unpublished

materials. Terms are usually quoted by a researcher.

Technical studies usually define terms as an explanatory device.

Guidelines in defining terms:

• Only terms, words, or phrases, which have special or unique meaning in the study, are defined.

• Terms should be defined operationally, that is, they are used in the study.

• The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term defined.

• Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines, and newspaper articles, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his sources. (Conceptual or theoretical definitions)

• Definitions should be as brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible

• Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if it is used for the first time.

The End