CHAPTER 1 THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

CONTENT

• MU

• ATMOSPHERE

• TEMPERATURE

• HOMEWORK READ CHAPTER #1 & 2

NOTAMS

• MWH 01/022 MWH RWY 36 BOW MU 27/25/28 WEF 0901050405

• BOW = Bowmonk Decelerometer (Bowmonk Sales)

• MU = Pronounced “Mew”, MU is a measurement of runway friction as reported by airport management.

NOTAM • BOW MU 27/25/28 WEF 0901050405• 1ST THIRD VALUE 27• 2ND THIRD 25• LAST 3RD 28• Went in effect 09 = 2009• 01 = 1st month• 05= 5th day• 0405 = 0405z• http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/

airports/resources/advisory_circulars/media/150-5200-28D/150_5200_28d.pdf

BRAKING ACTION

TAF 1/5/2009• TAF KMWH 051734Z 0518/0618 26004KT P6SM SCT020 SCT250 FM052000

22004KT P6SM SCT030 SCT250 FM060500 21005KT 5SM BR FEW002 BKN250 FM060900 23004KT 3SM BR VCSH OVC008

• KMWH 061121Z 0612/0712 20005KT 6SM BR VCSH SCT030 OVC080 FM061400 17005KT P6SM -SN OVC045 FM062100 21006KT P6SM OVC005

• KMWH 061852Z 00000KT 5SM BR BKN005 BKN070 M02/M03 A2983 RMK AO2 SLP117 T10171028

•KMWH 061850Z 0619/0718 00000KT 6SM BR BKN005 BKN070 TEMPO 0619/0622 4SM -FZRA SCT005 BKN040 FM062200 17006KT 5SM -RA BKN005 FM070200 21011KT P6SM BKN050 KEPH 061853Z AUTO 36005KT 8SM OVC060 M02/M04 A2983 RMK AO2 SLP118 T10171039

• KMWH 070001Z 00000KT 2SM BR BKN060 M01/M01 A2968 RMK AO2•

KMWH 070009Z 0700/0724 VRB03KT 5SM BR FEW030 OVC050 TEMPO 0700/0704 2SM BR SCT005 OVC040 FM070400 20010KT 3SM BR BKN006 OVC040 FM071200 19006KT 2SM BR VCSH BKN006

• KEPH 062353Z AUTO 33005KT M1/4SM FZFG VV001 M01/M02 A2967 RMK AO2 SLP064 T10111017 10011 21033 56025

TAF

• KMWH 072327Z 0800/0824 20012G15KT P6SM OVC070

• FM080700 18010KT P6SM -RA OVC060 FM081100 18011KT 6SM -RA BR OVC040

• FM081400 20012G20KT P6SM -SHRA OVC030 • FM081600 20012G20KT P6SM BKN150

• TAF 1-8-2010• FM081700 06006KT P6SM BKN019 OVC100

FD

• DATA BASED ON 070000Z VALID 071200Z

• FOR USE 0900-1800Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000 FT

• 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000

• GEG 2747+02 2950-01 2877-07 2984-15 2889-26 790341 791152 790755

• YKM 2629 2765+06 2874+02 2869-03 2855-14 2869-25 288540 299951 299958

• LWS 2430 2761+04 2863-01 2967-06 2967-16 2973-26 299841 800252 800457

Chapter 1THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE• The Earth’s atmosphere is in a constant

tug of war to reach equilibrium.

• The state of the Atmosphere at any given time and place in this tug of war is referred to as = weather.

• The first part of this class is the study of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena that occur in it = Meteorology.(Aviation Weather Theory)

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

• 99.9% of the total atmospheric mass is below 164,000 ft (about 27 n.m.). At this altitude the density is about one-thousandth of sea levels density. Very close to the top but there is no well-defined upper surface to the atmosphere.

• 90% of mass is below 53,000 ft• 50% of mass is below 18,000 ft

atmospheric mass

Chapter 1COMPOSITION

• When we consider the vertical structure of the atmosphere, we find that the proportions of the gases in dry air remain relatively constant to a height of about 80 km, although, at heights greater than 16 km, there is a slight tendency for some of them to be more concentrated at certain levels than others

Chapter 1COMPOSITION

• Air is a mixture of several gases • 78 % Nitrogen• 21% Oxygen• 1% Inert gases (argon, carbon

dioxide, Neon, Helium etc.)• 0 to 5% Particulate (water vapor,

smoke, dust, sand, volcanic ash etc.)

Chapter 1COMPOSITION

THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

• The ICAO standard atmosphere is established for average conditions prevailing in the first 20,000 meters (66,000ft), at about 40 degrees latitude north.

THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

• For pilots an ISA day would be:• Mean sea-level pressure 1013.25 hectopascals,

29.92 inches of mercury• Temperature 15 degrees C (59F),• Lapse rate 2 degrees C per 1000ft (1.95 degrees C

per 300 M/1.98 degrees C),• 1 inch Hg per 1000 feet• Altitude of the tropopause 11,000 meters (36,000

ft) above mean sea-sea level• Tropopause Temp -56.5C (36,200 to 64,000ft)

Vertical Structure by Temp.• On the basis of temperature and its

variation with altitude, the atmosphere can be divided into four main layers, or “spheres”, whose names are as follows:

• Troposphere,

• Stratosphere,

• Mesosphere and

• Thermosphere.

“SPHERE”/ “PAUSE”

• The upper part of each layer, characterized by changes in the temperature variation with altitude, is identified by replacing the suffix “sphere” with “pause”. Thus the upper part of the troposphere is called the tropopause.

• Similarly, the stratopause is the upper part of the stratosphere, and the mesopause, the upper section of the mesosphere. Since the thermosphere is considered to extend into space indefinitely, there is no thermopause.

Vertical Structure by Temp. (3)

LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE BY TEMP

TROPOSPHERE

• The word troposphere derives from the Greek: tropos for "turning" or "mixing," reflecting the fact that turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere's structure and behavior. Most of the phenomena we associate with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere.

• The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of its water vapor and aerosols.

TROPOSHERE• Starts at the surface and goes

up to an average of 7 miles high

• 20,000 ft at the poles to 65,000 at the equator

• It is higher in the summer than winter

• Standard Lapse rate is 2 degrees C/ 1000 ft (1.98 C) or 3.5 F/1000 ft

TROPOSHERE• Contains the majority of all weather mostly

because of the presence of water vapour and large-scale vertical currents

• In the cold upper-air regions near the tropopause, winds reach their maximum speeds and acquire a complex flow structure because of the jet streams, the narrow and fast-moving air currents that are imbedded in the general circulation.

TROPOPAUSE• Signaled by the beginning of an isothermal

layer (no to little change of temp with height) an abrupt change in temperature lapse rate.

• Boundary layer between troposphere and stratosphere

• Higher above the surface over the equator then the poles generally. Higher in warmer regions than in colder.

TROPOPAUSE• The jet stream exists in occasional

breaks in the tropopause between unlike air masses.

STRATOSPHERE

• Temp remains constant until

• At about 66,000 ft. temps starts to rise because of the ozone absorbing energy (inversion)

• This creates an inversion that keeps the Troposphere’s upward currents down. Very stable layer.

STRATOSPHERE• Even at 30 km, there can be clouds forming

in this stable layer. They are rare and called nacreous, or mother-of-pearl clouds. These clouds are thought to be made of ice crystals. They indicate that some water vapour is still present in this layer (although not much )Because they have a soft pearly luster as viewed from the surface of the earth. Best viewed in the poles with sun close to the horizon.

STRATOPAUSE/MESOSPHERE

• The upper part of the layer, is defined as the level where the temperature suddenly begins to rise with altitude. This increase in temperature characterizes the lower levels of the mesosphere, in which the average temperature reaches a maximum of about 10 degrees C at an altitude of about 50 km.

• Ozone concentrations are maximum here.

MESOSPHERE

• Higher in the mesosphere, the temperature once again begins to fall and, 80 km above the earth, reaches a minimum temp. of about -100 degrees C, at the level called the mesopause. There is little ozone up here therefore temps decrease with an increase in altitude.

MESOPAUSE

• Temperatures begin to increase with altitude near the mesopause, after reaching their minimum in the upper part of the mesosphere.

THERMOSPHERE

• This increase in temperature continues indefinitely into space, and is characteristic of the layer called the thermosphere. (Gets warmer with an increase in altitude.)

• 53 to 310 miles• Radiation excites the oxygen molecule

causing a temp increase.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Other Regions IONOSPHERE• Ionosphere• not really a layer• 37 miles is roughly the bottom• 180 miles is the greatest concentration• electrified region of the atmosphere• caused by the sun ionizing the atmosphere (the

process of making positive ions by freeing electrons from balanced atoms or molecules) Therefore have a large region of electrically charged particles (ions) in this area.

• Its importance lies in the density of the free electrons it contains, which is sufficient to greatly influence radio communications.

Other Regions IONOSPHERE

• Sky waves are reflected from the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere. Radio waves are absorbed by the ionosphere at day and are reflected at night, so reception is better at night. Sky waves permit radio reception up to 8000 miles. Sky waves are HF (high frequency 3,000-30,000 khz). And can allow for skipping of the HF signal. Can also affect MF (ADF transmissions during sunset and sunrise.)

OTHER LAYERS

• EXOSPHERE

• 310 miles and further

• Consists of atoms and molecules in loose orbit sometimes shooting off into space. An exit area.

Other Regions• Aurora Borealis

• 124 to 600 miles out

• Atomic oxygen = green & red

• Atomic nitrogen = red & violet

SOUTHERN/NORTHERN LIGHTS

• Southern lights (Aurora Australis) from space

• Northern lights over lake superior

• Northern lights Alaska

• Aurora Borealis• 124 to 600 miles out

HYPOXIA Basics

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_IqWal_EmBg&feature=player_embedded

• Air is matter and has weight. Since it is gaseous, it is compressible. Pressure the atmosphere exerts on the surface is the result of the weight of the air above. Thus, air near the surface is more dense than air at high altitudes.

• The decrease in air density with increasing height has a physiological effect. The rate at which the lungs absorb oxygen depends on the partial pressure exerted by oxygen in the air.

HYPOXIA

• By definition, the lack of adequate oxygen in the body’s metabolism is called hypoxia (or anoxia for the total absence of oxygen). It is the lack of sufficient oxygen to the body’s tissues and cells.

• Reasons may include:• Interference of drugs, alcohol, carbon monoxide,

smoking, and illness, high altitudes to name a few.

HYPOXIA

• 4 types of Hypoxia:

• Hypoxic (altitude) hypoxia

• Hypemic (anemic) hypoxia

• Stagnant hypoxia

• Histotoxic hypoxia

Hypoxic HYPOXIA

• Hypoxic hypoxia commonly used when talking about hypoxia associated with lack of available oxygen, as experienced when flying at altitude in an unpressurized cabin.

• It means that there aren’t enough oxygen molecules available to breath with sufficient pressure, as when we ascend. The number of molecules of oxygen decrease, despite the fact that the percentage remains the same.

Hypoxic HYPOXIA

• Symptoms do not become a significant factor until about 5000 ft, especially at night (vision).

• From a gas-law perspective, hypoxic hypoxia exists when the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere or the inhaled ambient air is reduce. This reduced partial pressure is also present in the inspired air as it travels into the bronchial tree and into the lungs. In other words, the partial pressure of oxygen as it is presented to the blood within the lung is too low to effectively carry and transfer enough oxygen to the cells of the tissues.

Hypemic Hypoxia

• This occurs when the blood’s ability to carry oxygen molecules is the problem, even though there is adequate oxygen available in the air to breathe and exchange.

• Anemia (reduced number of healthy functioning red blood cells (oxygen carriers)

• Carbon Monoxide if inhaled can hold a bond 250 times stronger than oxygen and take the space of oxygen on the hemoglobin. (compete with oxygen takes a long time to be removed from system)

Stagnant Hypoxia

• Blood flow is compromised for any reason such as the heart failing to pump effectively, an artery constricting and cutting off or reducing the flow, and venous pooling of blood because of gravity, such as in varicose veins of the legs.

• Also pulling positive G’s and long periods of pressure breathing at extreme cabin altitudes where oxygen masks are required or extreme cold temperature can all lead to stagnant hypoxia.

Histotoxic Hypoxia

• Histotoxic means the cell expecting and needing oxygen is abnormal and unable to take up the oxygen that is present.

• This abnormality created as a result of toxin or toxins present / absorbed by the cell.

• Alcohol, narcotics and certain poisons

Symptoms of Hypoxia

• Change in peripheral vision, even noting “tunnel vision”

• Visual acuity impairment, images slightly blurred, can’t focus.

• Difficulty in visual accommodation, focusing from near to distant and back.

• Weakness in muscles• Feeling tired• Sense of touch diminished

Symptoms of Hypoxia

• Sense of pain diminished

• Headache (especially long periods of hypoxia)

• Lightheaded / dizziness

• Tingling in fingers and toes

• Muscular coordination decreased

• Stammering

Symptoms of Hypoxia

• Cyanosis, bluish lips and fingernails

• Impaired judgment, doing dumb things

• Loss of self-criticism

• Overconfidence

• Aggressive

• Depression

• Altered respiration

Symptoms of Hypoxia

• Reaction time decreased

• Greatly reduced color discrimination and night vision (even at 5000 ft)

• Euphoria, you settle for less, who cares?

Smoking

• Smoking increases a pilot’s physiological altitude.

• If you smoke your body thinks it is at a higher altitude than you really are.

Time of Useful Consciousness

• 18,000 ft 20-30 minutes

• 22,000 ft 10 minutes

• 25,000 ft 3-5 minutes

• 30,000 ft 1-2 minutes

• 40,000 ft 15-20 seconds

• 43,000 ft 9-12 seconds

Treatment for Hypoxia

• If you have oxygen use it.

• If you can get to a lower altitude do it quick.

• Below 10,000 ft is a must

• Hypoxia is a valid reason for declaring an emergency.

Chapter 2Temperature

• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.

• Measurement of the energy of the molecules (movement)

• ASOS sensors

AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY

Solar Elevation Angle

• The primary cause of the Earth’s weather is variation of solar energy received by the Earth’s regions.

One Year

TEMPERATURE

• The melting point of pure ice and boiling point of pure water at sea level is 0 degrees C or 32 degrees F and 100 degrees C 212 degrees F.

• Thus the difference between melting and boiling is 100 degrees C or 180 degrees F

• 100/180 = 5/9• Since the O point in F is 32 degrees different that

0 degrees C you must apply this difference when comparing the temps on the two scales

Chapter 2Temperature pg.6

• Temperature Conversion equations:•  • Kelvin: °K= °C + 273.15 (O degrees Kelvin = no molecular

motion = absolute 0)

• Centigrade: °C = 5/9(F - 32)• Fahrenheit: °F = 9/5C + 32• Rankin: °R= °F + 459.67 •   • Note: 5/9 = 0.5555555 and 9/5 = 1.8• For example: 25.01°C = 198.16°K = 77.018°F = 536.688°R • Memorize the conversion of Celsius and Fahrenheit above.• Lines of equal temperature are called isotherms

Chapter 2Temperature

• 32 degrees Fahrenheit and 0 degrees Celsius causes ice to melt.

• 100 degrees Celsius or 180 Fahrenheit is the boiling temperature at sea level on a standard day.

What is a Thermometer?

• A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of a system in a quantitative way. The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a property that changes in a regular way with its temperature. The most direct 'regular' way is a linear one:

What is a Thermometer?

• For example, the element mercury is liquid in the temperature range of -38.9° C to 356.7° C. As a liquid, mercury expands as it gets warmer, its expansion rate is linear and can be accurately calibrated.

• • The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above

figure contains a bulb filled with mercury that is allowed to expand into a capillary. Its rate of expansion is calibrated on the glass scale.

Early thermometer• They consisted of a glass bulb having a long

tube extending downward into a container of colored water, although Galileo in 1610 is supposed to have used wine. Some of the air in the bulb was expelled before placing it in the liquid, causing the liquid to rise into the tube. As the remaining air in the bulb was heated or cooled, the level of the liquid in the tube would vary reflecting the change in the air temperature. An engraved scale on the tube allowed for a quantitative measure of the fluctuations.

Early thermometer• It was in 1724 that Gabriel Fahrenheit, used

mercury as the thermometric liquid. Mercury's thermal expansion is large and fairly uniform, it does not adhere to the glass, and it remains a liquid over a wide range of temperatures. Its silvery appearance makes it easy to read.

CONVERSIONS• To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply by

1.8 and add 32. • ° F = 1.8° C + 32

The albedo of the Earth

• The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the Sun. It is therefore a more specific form of the term reflectivity.

• The average albedo of our planet is around 0.3.  This means that 30% of the sunlight that strikes the Earth is re-emitted back into space. Rainforests have the lowest albedo on the Earth. 

•  Percentage albedo for different types of surface• Fresh snow 80-85 • Old snow 50-60 • Grass 20-25 • Forest 5-10 • White paint 80 Black paint 5

ALBEDO

Mean predicted surface temperatures if the Earth was covered by different surfaces

• The mean temperature of the Earth's surface is 15 oC at present.  If our planet was completely covered by forests (Ewok Planet) the average temperature would be 24 oC.  If the Earth's surface was all desert (Planet Dune), the mean temperature would be 13 oC.  If there were only oceans, the temperature would be 32 oC because water is dark and has a low albedo.  If our planet was completely covered by ice, the temperature would be really cold, just -52 oC!

sun

• The source of energy for the atmosphere is the sun. Only about 51% of the energy striking the top of the atmosphere is actually absorbed at the earth’s surface.

• The solar radiation scattered and reflected back into space is about 30% = earths albedo

• At night no sun Earth gives off or radiates its IR radiation back into space

• Water has about four times the heat capacity of typical dry soil. The ability of water to absorb large amount of solar energy is further increased because radiation can penetrate to a greater depth than soil. Also water mixes.

• Water temp stays constant longer and warms slower than land

Snow

• Snow reflects a large fraction of incoming solar radiation and gives up infrared radiation easily; these influences help keep the temps low over snow surfaces under clear skies

• Cloud layer at night increases the capture of IR further restricting night time cooling.

TEMPERATURE AND Wx

• Insolation is when the suns rays warm the earth

• Different surfaces radiate and receive at different rates (Land/Water) Water tends to change it temperature slower.

• Terrestrial radiation when the earth radiates the energy back into the atmosphere

TEMPERATURE AND Wx• Diurnal Variation is difference

between day and night (coldest temp just after sunrise)

• Seasonal variation - summer to winter

• length of days and nights

• Latitude variation - angle which the suns rays strike the earth

TEMPERATURE AND Wx• Topography variation - arid land

Vs vegetation (wet / dry)

• Variations with Altitude - Average lapse rate 2 degrees C per 1000 feet.

• (3.56 °F or 1.98 °C/1000 ft) this is the actual ISA environmental lapse rate

TEMPERATURE AND Wx• All of the above temperature

effects create weather patterns. Be it they make the air more dense, change the pressure, increase or decrease moisture in the air. They all affect aircraft performance.

INVERSION• Increase in temp with an increase in

altitude

• Can occur at any altitude in Troposphere

• Most common occurrence is on calm clear cool night in which the ground cools air close to it.

• This is caused by terrestrial radiation

INVERSION

• This time of year the basin gets one

• Cold stable air near the surface

• Warm overriding air above

• smooth air

• poor visibility under the inversion

• Get socked in sometimes for weeks

INVERSION (10)