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SHELAGH A GALLAGHER

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Educational Implications of Gifted Adolescents Cognitive Development

LL OF A SUDDEN John eats like a horse Dwight

A brings lew friends home Tmya discovers exisshytentialism while Sarah discovers--alld then

loses-her temper Velcome to adolescence Although the external transformations capture

our attention the genesis ofadolcscenr change is internal an influx of hormones stimulates physical growth moods shift

as the hody adjusts and even the hrain is expanding opening the door to whole new vistas understanding The changes of adolescence are so numerous and tll-reaching it is a wonshyder we rry to teach these stlldems at all yet manv secondary educators feci a sense of urgency about their instruction The need to prepare students for college contributes to the urgency as does rhe need ro prepare them for work in the Int()[l11ation

The seme of ufgency also is ted by the knowledge that in some Va the clock is running out on compulsory education tOf these adolescents and before that happens they mllSt acquire enough dedication to seek the education they need independent of Lms or parents Ideally they vill have some vision of thcir future to guide their way

All thi urgencv sometimes convinces teachers that there

is roo much l LIke to take time to differentiate fOf their gifted lt[udem Yct adolescence isalso the time when it is nost likelv tim gifted ~--illb~don theirgi~l~~Z~-se of a dei rL [(l he popular of bored~l~- ~~ith ~imple schopli l1g

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4 GALLAGHER

or ofd~ltenc~~~Jl~nt ~[hrhe lack of~igrificance their curriculum How do we sustain gifted students desire to learn while still preparing thcm for college and

life At the very lease hoI can we keep them from skipping class The answers

to these questions lie in the qualitative differences gifted srudents bring into the

classroom New research on the brain may well provide us with nelV ways to map

and describe these differences (see Figure 1j Even no elidence of qualitative

differences from both psvciloiogy and education provide a strong rationale for

modifying conrenr ell1phlizing thinking strategies and using student perspecshy

~reatea n~~llil~~j~tt~rc~~~at~I~-goals that are respelrru[ consisrent with seco-zruv instruction

A Rationale for Multidimensional Content Differentiation

Copious Challenging Content

Cifted students spongc-like absorprion of new information is a defining trait

Cognitive scientists have isolated at least three skills related to IQ that comhine

to create an advantage in acquiring int()fJnatiol1 According to Steiner and Carr

(2()Ol) in LlI1rs who (1) react to new information quickly (2) accomrnodare new information or habituate quickly and OJ habituated inflHmation to seek

out new stimuli quickk grow into children with high IQs Ihese same fKtors-~

rapid inforlllati()n12roc(ss~lg habit~tio~~~f1~J)rCerenCe fO[rtweltv-also are crucial to expcrt perl~)rn1ancc

Betwecl]ligh=TcTZhildren and tTle expert adults arc gifted adolescents who also

(1) learn better when taught two to three times t~l~tcr than average (rapid response to srimuli) ren]SIl1hq FHncr- repetitions (Larson amp Richards 1991)

which suggcsts h~~bitl1atioll andr~r~_)1d better to opell-ended inquiry-orishy

emeJ instrucriol1 (noveir- seeking Sak 2004) preferring to learn somcthlllg~~~w evel1 Illorc than typical Iv popular hands-on activities ilthough il is impossible to

make GlllSal or developmcntal ties based on these separate bodies of research the

similarities arc clear

As gifted adolescents cng~lge in the cycle of seeking responding to and

accommodating new informarion they acql1irc an extensive knowledge base

which contributes to acadcmic SLiccess Helping gifted students acquire a subshystambl knowledge base is th( hr( csential component of an dfectile secondary

program

Should differenrinioll then foclls on intensive memorization tacts No

Gifted srudems consbremil report thlt the dominant cmphasi on LlCrual learnshy

ing leads to thcir disenchantment IIith school (Csikszenrmihahi Rarhunde amp Whalen 1993 Gallagher --larradine amp Coleman 199- Kmelskv amp Keighley

2003 Plucker amp 1clntir 1 )96) lhe extensive knmdeug hasc giftcd students

Programs and Services for Gifted Secondary Students

5 DESIGNED TO FIT

Adults often wonder what happened to the mind of a new adolescent as it often seems to have disappeared Ironically adolescents dont suffer from a lack of grey matter rather they have a surfeit A decade of research using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technology has revealed that brain development is much more dynamic than once thought particularly during adolescence Key findings include

1 Just before the teenage years the brain acquires a mass of new grey matshyter Grabner Neubauer and Stern (2006) reported this new brain growth peaks at around 11 for girls and 12 for boys

2 The new grey matter is deposited in the prefrontal cortex which controls executive functions impulse control deciSion-making reasoning and planning

3 Myelinization of an early adolescents prefrontal cortex is significantly less developed than an adults Myelin the insulation helps make strong efficient connections between neurons the neural connections manifest as thought or action Myelin develops as a result of exercising an area of the brain much as muscle develops as a result of exercising an arm or leg New and unexercised an adolescents new prefrontal cortex--the area that controls executive function-is relatively flabby and in need of a workout (Sowell et aI 2003)

4 Unable to efficiently use their flabby prefrontal cortex young teens rely on other regions of the brain including the amygdala which sends out impulsive gut reactions to respond to certain stimuli like facial expressions Adults use their prefrontal cortex to respond to the same stimuli Only in later adolescence does the teen brain begin to respond like an adults (Yurgelun-Todd amp Kilgore 2006)

5 Individuals with high measured IQ also tend to have more grey matter in the prefrontal cortex than individuals whose IQ is average or below (Haier Jung Yeo Head amp Alkire 2004) suggesting the opportunity to develop more or stronger executive control function

6 The preadolescent influx of grey matter is followed by attrition throughshyout adolescence Grabner and colleagues (2006) called this a pruning process that weeds out weak neural connections and retains stronger connections

For decades the assumption has been that secondary educators have been adding to a work in progress helping to mold a brain that has been around since a childs birth Current research replaces this picture with another 12-year-olds hurrying down crowded hallways each carrying a mass of untrained brain This image might serve as a call to action for any teacher but it is particularly important for gifted educators because the prefrontal cortex regions are critical for essentially all higher order cognitive functions (Grabner et aI 2006 p 436) Grabner et al noted the observed efficiency of prefrontal cortex activity in intelligent individuals suggests that they are malleable and responsive to training

The key to changing an unpredictable impulsive 1 2-year-old into a more self-possessed 22-year-old lies at least in part on the effective development of executive control processes Given the relationship between prefrontal matter and intelligence gifted students may well have more potential for executive control skill to develop-or waste Because the adolescent brain also will engage in winnowshying out unused or ineffective neural connections it seems incumbent upon gifted educators to pay special attention to this area during the secondary years

FIGURE 1 Neurological changes at adolescence

A Guide to Recommended Practices

6 GALLACHeR

develop is significant because more leads to different (Berliner 1986 as cited

in Shiever amp Maker 199~) Vith more content at their disposal gifted students

can make more connections and see more original relationships fen a strong

knowledge base facilitates and is facilitated by the development of advanced

domain-specific strategies and metacognitive knovvlcdge (Carr amp Alexander 1996 p 214) Over time these strategies accumulate and create an im perus toward

complex and abstract leH1s of understanding

Abstract Complex Content

Another form of diHerentiation panicularlv appropriate f(Jr gifted students

is exposure to abstracr cOIlClprual ideas Abstract reasoning creates its OWIl rc)rm of new content ro understand encompassing inrll1gible notions such as hypothshy

esis posing theorizing and analogous reasoning Bv implication srudents must

hlYe acces to abstract reasoning before they can succeed with curriculum that

rlquires designing experiments inrerpreting symbolic meaning or comparing

polic~ initiatives

Students are generally thought to have ~lCces to abstract thought with the onset

of adolescence and the acquisition of fiJrmal operational reasoning (Inhdder amp Piaget 1958) Svsttmatic differences between groups in the acquisition of formal

operational reasoning would provide compelling reawns (0 diff(rentiate in order to

capitalize on the early opportullity to begin honing these essential skill Berninger

and YHes (1995) present a thorough review of the literature on gifted students and

[(Hillal operations demollstrating that

1 Children move through the Pbgetian stages in the SHlll order but not on

the same timcline Cifted students acquire lHll1al operational reasoning

around ages 12-- 11 1110t other students arc still in the transition to f(Hl11al

operations It age 1 i 2 Cifted boys tend to enttr formal operations earlier than gifted girls ~nle

etfect size of this ditt(ren(e is smail and the male advantage dil11inishts

by bte adolescence

3 Cifted adolescents progress through substages of formal operations more

quickly than their age-mates

Cifted students have the Cclpacin f()r abstracr conceptual reasoning as many

as ) years ahead of their peers-thc equillIlent their emire illedle school (areers

Naturallr variability exists in both the gifted and average populations but still the

implications arc clear (itrcd srudents are readv to grapple with qualitatively dif

fercn t con ten t years ahead of thci l cLlssnu tes ()nce formal oper~ltions arc achieved

instruction should be dl~igncd ((lard mastering this new [(lrm of content as it

is critical for Sllccess in econdar ltCademics (Bitner Il)) I Cipson Abraham amp

Renner 1989 Hurst amp MilkCnt 19 ~latthevs amp McLaughlin 1994 McDonald

1 ()89 iaz amp Robinson 19()2 Xnwing 1989) Incorporating conceptual content

with a plentiful ElCtual base also prmides a means ofensuring that learning will not


7

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DESIGNED TO FIT

fall into drill and rote memorization Concepts help organize facts resulting in more meaningful connections and expert-like thinking (Shore amp Irving 2005)

Disciplinary or Interdisciplinary Content

Understanding the need for a deep concept-centered knowledge base is only pardy useful it also is necessar~ to know how to focus the knowledge Compelling

arguments can be made in two directions On one hand opportunity for early

specialization is essential tor students with exemplary talent (jarvin amp Subotnik

2006) Early specialization also makes sense for many students whose chosen career

may require many years ofschooling On the other hand the modern age is marked by unique combinations of traditional disciplines into new fields (Klein 19(3) and innovation is often the resulr of cross-disciplinary application similar to the use of linguistics to decode the DNA sequence (Young 20tH) Ultimately tilL

most effective programs for gifted adolescents provide the choice ro eithergt) wide

or deep whil~ ensuring some exposure ro deep disciplinary thinking and original

interdisciplinary connections regardless of the direction students take In sum gifted students arc capable of learning substantially more content

than their peers They also have earlv capacity for abstract thought which both

adds a of contenr and helps organize bcmal inr(lrmation Building a gifted students knowledge baslt maklts sense especially because this knowledge base is a

predictor of academic sliccess Ensuring that gifted students fond as they are of novel tv remain engaged in learning requires the presentation of content that

bull presents information using instructional models that Elcilitate idenrificashy

tion and creation of meaningful connections

bull allmvs for inductive and deductivlt connections between facts and absrract ideas

bull incorporates time specifically f()1 cultivation of abstract reasoning and bull encourages either deep exploration of one diScipline (with exposure to

inrerdisciplinary thought) or wide exploration of several disciplines (with

exposure to deep exploration in one field)~or both

Frequent Opportunities for Higher Order Thinking

Ihe knowledge base gifted students acquire may he impressie but it is ultishy

mnely fairly useless unless rhev pur that knowledge ro work with the help thinking strategies SurprisinglY (he research base on gifted adolecents unique

chinking arrribnrcs is thin in both gifted education and cognitive science research

on how cognitive difhrenccs dCIclop is virtuallv nonexistent (Steiner amp Carr 2003)

The research that is available tltnds to tocus on three interrelated areas ( JI strategic thinking metacognitioI1 and (5) cxpen thinking

Thinking to Slow Down Gifted students generallv use the same set of srratltgies that other students use so in terms of sheer number of


8 CALLAGHER

strategies employed they do not seem difFerent from other students (Hong 1999)

However gifted students learn more quickly and when r~lCcd with a challenging

task they use more complex ftlfmS of strategies and often seleer sophisticated

strategies lSteiner amp Carr 2006) Having more contenr at their disposal they have

the capacity to use thinking strategies to more original ends As obvious as it may

seem however it bears emphasizing that there is a difFerence berween knowing a

strategy and using a strategy Evidence suggests that gifted studenrs only use their

critical thinking srrategies when they perceive a need that is when the challenge

of a task merits their use (Hong 199))

Gifted students advantage with thinking strategies is especiallv apparent when

they are engaged in prohlem solving Cdred srudenrs tend to show a greater explicit

knowledge of problcm-sohing stages know more problem-solving strategies and

are more adepr in selecting strategies to usc when t~1Ced h an open-ended problem

111ey also are more inclined to switch from one strategy to another when necesshy

sary (Kanevskv 1 ()92) [he sucngrh gitred studenrs demonstrate is evident even

in the absence of direct instruction in problem solving gifted stLIdenrs seem to

invent strltegies when needed (lonrague 1991) Xhile they 1re problem solving

t1st-learning gifted studenrs slow down taking more time to plan and strategize

(Davidson amp Sternberg 1 ()84 Shore amp Lazar 1996) [n addition they show early

tendencies toward expert-like behavior when prohlem solving content knowledge

may strengthen this tendencv (Cherne Jinter amp Cherney 20()))

In sunllnary gitred smdcl1[s dCl11onsrrlfe superior performance in a wide range

of thinking skills which they use well and selectivelv However gifted stlldellts

use these skills onh when faced with meaningful challenges Ensuring that gifted

srudenrs develop their skills in critical thinking requires

bull consranr exposure to challenging conrent

bull tasks more challenging than aYcrage requiring the use of critical

thinking

bull reflective time to engage III problem finding planning and cOllcepmai

reasoning and

bull an oer111 p1(e curriculum 1Ild instruction in which time saved a a result

of ra~lid COlHenr learning is spellt on more difficult complex thinking

Afelflcog1lii(JIl In the cark 1))-10 Sternberg (I (JH2 propoed that l11ctacognishy

tion the ability to Oversee and manage thinking is an important flCwr in gifted

pertl)rmlt1nceAfter two decades of research a more specitlc hut unexpected picshy

mre has emerged ofgittcd studel[~ llse of l11ctacognitiol1 AltilOugh it is dear that

mcr1cognirion is a component or cXLmpL1r pertl)rmaI1Ce gifted students do nO[

show a clcar-cut pcrtlJrmance adYll1tagl In tlcr there lfC on two areas of metashy

cognition where gitred studclHS COlbistlIlrV show superior performance (1) gifted

student knowledge 1hollt speLdic iemling strategics and i) their indination to

usc a skill in a ncw usual gteIting Iso known IS far rrlmt~I (Carr amp Alexanmiddot

der 1996 Robinson 0 ClinhmiddotnbLlld 19()x Span amp Cherroom-Corsmit 1986)

Other s[udie of l11l[~K()gl1itiun hem onk a slight adYltllHlge gitred studenrs


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some show inferior performance among gifted youth (Dresel amp Haugwitz 2005

Ludlow amp Woodrum 1982) At first glance these findings seem counrerintuitive Why wouldnt gifted stushy

dents show the same advantage in metacognition that they have in learning content

and using thinking skills Carr and Alexander (1996) presenred three plausible

explanations First the tasks llsed in metacognitive research especially research on

near transfer may be so easy that gifted srudenrs do well without monitoring their

performance 111is would explain vhy gifted students are similar to their peers in

their use of metacognitive skills on near transfer tasks but consistently perform betshy

ter on far transfer tasks Far transfer tasks offer a greater challenge requiring gifted

smdems to engage in sdf-monitoring Drescl and Haugwitz (200)) conducted a

classroom-based study that reintorces this notion finding that gifted students did

nO[ use self-regulating behavior if thev thought an assignment was easy Based on

their study they concluded the finding that students with high abilities use

strategies less frequentlv in regular school lessons can be seen as an indication that

their learning environment is inadequately low (p I )) In order ro provide

gifced students with the same amount of practice in self-regulation as average stushy

dems they must work as frequently with tasks the find challenging-I11e alternashy

tive is to leave these skills undeveloped underdeveloped or poorly ckvcloped

Second the relationship between metacognition and IQ lllay have a threshshy

old dlCct lQ may predict skilled LIse of metacognition up to a point Once the

threshold is crossed I(~ docs not guarantee that children will acquire or usc

cognitive skills such as Illcracognitioll believed to promote high achievement

1l1ese cognitie kills appear to deeop instead our ofel11crging expertise (Carr

amp Alexander 19W) p 214) 111 iId the generic conrent-free nature of research tasks may be both u nrcal istic

and unlikelv to [eltal gifted performance difFerences Research Oil expert perforshy

mance suggests that cognitivc monitoring realh is on necessary after thc student

develops I deep and signif1cam body of discipline-based coment (Chi Glaser amp Em 19RR Rabinowitz amp Glaser 19Wi)

In SLIm gifted students have accts) to seWregulatory lwhaviors but lise them

inconsistenrh- Llltctive self-regulation is relatcd both to ltlcademic success and to

adlllt expert percml) 111 cO Ensuring that gifted students have adequate practice

wirh a wide range of metltlcognitivc skills requires

bull constanr exposure ro chaltnging Cllmcnr

bull learn j ng tasks slIfficicn tk d iftlcul r to requi re sOl f-regulation 1l1el bull immersion in disciplinan-hased CO I1(C 11(

EjJfrtis( and 1migh r i nw expert performance prmides ] guideshy

post trll planning programs ttlr gifred adolescenrs because we aspire for Ihll11 ro become experts or innomiddotlt1wrs in their chosen field Research filldings conrinul ro

strengthen the rit between gifrlmiddotd srudenrs thought processes and rhar of domainshy

specitlc expertS (Gorodetsb 0 -hlir 2003 Klll till an Genrile amp Bacr 200) Shore 2(00) Common charlc-rnirics ~llreadv discllssed include rapid acquisirion


GALLAGHER10

of content skill and flexibility in critical thinking and self-regulation Gifted srudenrs seem to intuitively have some expert-like skills (Kaufman er ai 2005) while others are only acquired through training (Cherney et ai 2005)

Reviewing the literature on expertise Carr and Alexander (1996) pointed our

that it more than skill and ability to be an expert Although experts need sufficient general ability (IQ) to perf()fm at a high level other such as task

commitmenr a sttOng knowledge and social suppOrt are more important tor developing expertise and promoting achievement through expertise (p 214) Ihe list of teguiremenrs for expertise also includes perspective forward problem solving persistence risk taking and tacit knowledge professional language and behaviors Jarvin amp Sllbornik 2006 Shore 2000 Sternberg 2(03) Expershy

tise in this larger sense can be devcoped using curriculum and instruction

emphasize problem solving open-ended questions construction ofideas multiple

perspectives and exposure to disciplinary experts (Gallagher 2006 Shore amp Irving

2005 Sternberg 2003 Sllbornik 2003) [11 sum gifted students cognitivl characteristics parallel those of adult lxperts

Ensuring thar gifted srudlnts continue to develop lxperr-like skills requires

bull exposure to explicit and tacit dbciplinary knowledge bull time to engage in flexibll thinking with disciplinary and interdisciplinary

content

bull curriculum and instruction thar incorporate inquiry cOl1ceptuallearning and authentic conrexts and

bull opportunities f(lI problem solving and mentorships

The Role of Student Perspective Epistemology

Still missing is perhaps t11l most importanr rlCror abollt the education ofgifred adole~cellts Etons to design effective programs and promote new kinds of practice will be for naught if thc srudems themselves do not recognize the significance or

valuc in (he tasks assigned [ he t(JrI11 of perspecrivl in question is tpistemgy ones abo lit rhe nature

of knowledge Perry (1 presel1[ed a developmental scheme that made direct

and pragmatic application [0 the classroom tor it described both how students

views of knowledge change Ocr time and also the powerful eteCt ditering views

have in the classroom Perrys scheme presents nine distincr positions that can be collapsed into four broad suges as sUlllmarized by Gallagher (2006)

Dualism Marked by a black-and-white perspective srudents at rhis sragl

believe aillegirimate questions have certain anSWlrs So-called questions without answers are jmt nOl1seme questions pointless

Multiplicity Stlldents acknowledge that there arc a kw unanswered

questions hut hdiCL dur in the absence of an ltlnswer all opinions on the matter are egualk alid

Programs and Services for Gifted Secondary Student

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Contextual Relativism Unanswered questions are investigated using the

tools provided by each discipline each discipline approaches questions in a different wav Certain amwers are unlikely bur a best ansver can

be achieved using the proper rools

CommitmentDialectic Theories are used [() set directions for imporshy

cam questions most of which have no right or wrong answers Gaining understanding requires building upon the possibilities presented by dara as interpreted by a consciously selected point ofview bur with willingness

to change perspective if rhe need arises (p 436)

l~lble 1 presents the f(lUr stages aligned with the beliefs about learning that Iecomshy

pany each stage For a more concrete example comider Carl and Cedric two students waitshy

ing for class to begin Carl believes rlwt knowledge means fH-rS and being knowledgeable means remembering lots of bets Cedric 011 the other band

thinks that knowledge is the abilitv to combine bcts to create ideas For Cedric

being knowledgeable isnt aboll[ the numher of ElCts he knows its ahout how the [Kts can form and rd()fIll to create diffltrent ideas Their teacher Ms Morshy

gan starts her lecture on the Trail oflCars f()(using on the sequence of even ts

detailing what who and when Carl picks up his pen and starts studiously takshying notes Cedric slumps down in his desk grumbling [lCtoids-lbe two boys

hear the same lccrure bom the same teacher but their ditterent belids abour

knowledge afftC[ bow willing they are to accept the inf()rmation as meaningful or valid

A numher ofrheories nmv artempt to describe aspects ofepistel11ological develshyopment (Baxter 1agolda 1987 King amp Kitchener 1994 Schommer 1994) Each theory describes sequen tiaL developmentalmovemenr from a low or naive stance in which knowledge is equated with flctllal inr()Jmation and memorization to

a high or mature stance in which bets are used ro build theories from a

consciollsly selected point ofview but with willingness w change perspective if the need arises (C~lllagher 2006 p 43(1) In the example above Carl holds a navc

stallce and thu~ is happy to gather up a list of taCtS from the lecture Cedrics stance

is more mature and he wishes the flcts had been embedded in more meaningful ideas

Je ComprelJemizie Irnptlct (1Fpitemgy At one level the impact of Carls

and Cedrics differing heliefs is immediately apparent Students are not like ro learn what the do 110 helilVl to be Illeaningfu-or at least they wont learn it

t()r long After two decades of reselrch into the effeC( of epistemology on karning

it is clear that the impact extends hevond whether students like whl( thl learn to

a number of other important ilCldll1lic Ol[COll1es dCllciemil ilcJitlJcmcnt Using a structural equation

analysis Cano (2005) f()ulld that high school students epistemological stance had

both direct and indirect effects 011 academic achievement Similar results have been


Stages of Epistemological

Development(3

co Beliefs 3 Associated With the Positionl shyVgt rI)

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shyshy Epistemological Vgt ngt Stage 0 l- -lt Instruction That Vgt Encourages c shy Movement to a ~ Higher Stage

Earlier Positions

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Perrys StagesPositions of Epistemological Reasoning and Related Instructional Strategies

-

Dualism Multiplicity Relativism

Knowledge is cer- Some questions have I Knowledge is interpreted tam (right or wrong) no certain answers in and unambiquous these cases knowledge

I in context distinguishing better from worse answers

and truth are subjec- Irequires selecting theories Authorities (teachers) live so everyones opinshy Ih b jt he quPtiouknow The Truth ion is eq~llyvalid

Activities that help Practice in comparshy Practice in creating students develop skill ing hypotheses and

comparing and select-

in memorization and theories acknowledgshy ing preferable theoshyrecall mnemonics etc ing all possibilities retical models

in exoert behaviors

Exposure to lems with more than in different disciplines one right answer andl to conduct research or more than one construct theories approach to a solution and make decisions

RanCJe of Typical School Senior

Range of Gifted High School Senior

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Knowledge methods are and uncertain Choices require analysis and values

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13 DESIGNED TO FIT

found with middle school srudenrs (Schommer-Aikins Duell amp 11l[ter 2005) Studenrs at lower levels may have trouble correcring misconceptions and draw

only fact-based information from inquiry-oriented environments (Ryan ] 984) Epistemological Jtanee aJectJ ildvanced academic performance Students with

more advanced belief have an easier time building logical arguments (Weinstock

Kellman amp Tabak 2(04) they tend to choose thinking strategies that Slipport

deep rather than surface learning (Cano 2005 Zhang amp Watkins 2(01) Kitchshy

enet (1983) also suggested that students selectioll of meracognirive strategies can

be affected by their epis((mologicai beliefs Support for this idea comes from a study by Ruban and Reis (2006) who found that high-achieving students tended

to select cnhancemem oriented learning strategies while lower achieving srudents

selected survival oriented strategies

Illstruction can encourage )WIemem to higber epistemological elcTelChers

can affecr changes in students epistemological thinking through intentionally

structllred learning experiences (Kloss 1094 Kronholm 1993l Strategies recomshy

mended to dCc1op epistemological thinking include using ill-structured problems

and instructional straregics thar allow srudenrs to examine their assumptions anashy

lyze data that present different conHicting perspectiyes and then make decisions

(King amp Kitchener 20(4) Devoting some time to direct instruction about tbe

narure of the discipline helps develop higher levels of reasoning (Bdl 20(4) vhmltltch bet1 iecn instructiol t7 lid epistemoogiCtl Itllnee (pnspect i IJt) colltributes

to jruurrltiol[ (wd disillusiolllJlflll Cedric didnt respond well when Ms Marrin

started a f1Cr-based lecture Over time he will simply decide that school is trivial

or worse meaningless Had Ms 1artin staned imtead with a discllssion of the

violation of Native Americans sense of personhood Cedric wOllld have been

thrilled and Carl would hae been lost This kind of disparity creates barriers to

learning (Nelson 19()6 PelTY 1(70) --Jebel and Schommer-Aikins (2002) f()lnd

that a mismatch between insrruction and stance caused work avoidance among

some high school phYsics students Lovell and lunnefY (2004) ltJUnd that srudents

even found small-group work Illore Itisfing when they Vere grouped according

to sranct (perspecrhc)

Giftrd tlldCIIpound1 tmel to tlJead iii epistemgical dezclopllllllt Stll(iiLs of adoshylescents doculllent that cpistemological belicts mature in a pndioablc dcvelopshy

mental sequcnce (Cano 200) Zhang amp latk ins 2(01) In parallcl to formal

operational reasoning gifred rdoiesccl1t move through episremologicli stges in

the same sequence (Ihomas 2()08) but tend to be a stage or rwo ahead of orlIer

rhe same age (Arlin amp LCirr Il))X Goldberger 1981 Schollll11er I Dunnell

1997 ~n1Omas) 2008 Wilkinsoll I Iaxwcll 1991 iilkinsoll amp Schw~lrtz 19X-1

Lible 1 provides a general seme of the distribution of senior year studcm baSell on existing research

Adult experts tend to holt IlrlzlIIeal epi)tllIIologimlliClls -Ihc epistcl11ojogicri

framework also provides a UHl1lCtiOIl to anuther aspect of experrisc -CIO the

disciplines the behaviors and l([irlllk associared with mature episrel11ologv arc


[


gt ~ ~--------------

GALLAGHER14

considered essential for advanced authentic work (Buehl amp Alexander 2005 Felder 1997 Henderson 1995 Kloss 1994 Muis 20(4)

Connections With G~fted Education Evidence that gifted students tend ro

be somewhat ahead of their age-mates in epistemological development follows

naturally from the data on formal operations reponed above However other

inreresting connections bring this theon into cohesion with existing knowledge

of giftltd students for example there is some indication that people who prlttCr

Intuition on the Jhers-Briggs Type Inventory tend [() have higher epistemologishy

cal stances (Zhang 199()) Cifted rudents overwhelmingly report this prdlrenCl

(Sak 2004) and the connecrion gives further evidencc that giftcd students will

respond best to open-ended inquiry-oriented learning environments Similarly

it explains gifted adolescents positive response to mentOr relationships Like

all adolescents gifted reenagers want to see similarities bcrween themselves and

others in mentors they find kindred spirits who think abour ideas from similar

frames of mind

Most exciting perhaps is the COil necrion between epistell1oosY md expertise

Not only do gifted students show earlv potential to achieve the expens high levels

of reasoning bur also epistell1ologicalll10deis provide a guide to he p explain how [() move all students closer to authentic higher order reasoning Callagher (l99X) suggested that models slIch as these would make effecdve frameworks for designing

high school curriculum providing an organic model for differentiation Based on

his study of adolescent epistelllological beliefs Cano (200raquo) concurred

it is necessary to take into account nor only students previous knowlshy

edge and learning strategies bur also their learning approaches and

epistemological beliefs Secondlv wc should work directly to try to

enhance [he depth of learning approaches and the complexity of episshy

temological belid~ as way of improving academic achievemenc (p 217)

Finally this framework reinforces the notion that the outcomes tt)r ignorshy

ing srudents beliefs are grave Srudents have trouble accepting the relevance of

instrtlLtion that is out of sync with their stag (Perr- ]970) a finding that is

consonant with the well-established knowledge that gifred adolescents reject munshy

dane repetitive curriculum hlrrher gifted students operating at higher levels than

other students find instrllction orienred towards the majorit uninspiring and

communicate their feelings through underachievement More sltriollsly perhaps

Nelson (1989) cautioned that excessive time spent in low-lenl curriculum actively

builds a wall of habit that blocks the path to higher level reasoning Even rapid

acceleration can havc this d~magillg eftect ifstudenrs are onlv accelerated into nev

low-level content It) prmidl a climl[e read for higher order thinking educators

must present COIltCIH that is accelerated vertically as well as horizomalh-

CI [

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Complete Coherence Evidence-Based Recommendations for

Differentiation in Secondary School

Each of the perspecrivcs considercc1 in this rationale is championed h differshy

ent researchers operating from different paradigms and using differenr research

techniques Even so their respectin findings arc remarkably similar

1 Gifted adolescents nced exposure [0 ~l larger quanrity of coment that

the find dnllenging Beginning at least in middle schooL abstract conshy

tenr should he a srandard part of their curriculum I he importlnle of developing a plenriful high-quality wcll of information i essLlHial as

it is a precursor to using higher order thinking ll1etJcognitivc thinking

and abstract thinking Cifted students will lot adequJtek develop their

thinking skills without this knowledge base 2 A quality knowledge bZlse is neCssary hilt notutticilmiddotllt ItH developing

thinking skilk Ciftecl studenrs 1lUt be presented with Ierning experishy

ences that require them to engage their critical thinking skills and metlshy

cognitive skills If they do not find their assignments challenging their

brains willilot engage their higher order functions T()gether content and

strategv med along ith metacognition predict academic perf()[mltlnce

making the simultalleous devdopmenr of these three paramount

3 Cifted students show earl~ promise t()r deydoping expertise Capitalizi ng

on that earlv promise requires instruction where stlldems Gl1 practice the

qualities of expcrtbe including open-ended imtruction inquiry-based

instruction problcm-oriented instrucrion field experiences and menrorshy

ships all cCl1[ercd 011 high-qualitv disciplinarv or imcrdisciplinary content

Cifted srudents arc most lihk to sec this instruction as relevant and draw

maximum value hom it

4 Expertisc requircs more thall contLflt and skill habits of mind ~llld

~llhaI1C1d epistemological re~lsoning also arc essentiaL If we aspirc for gifted students-~or for allY s(Udel1l~--to hecome creative productive leadshy

ers in their chosen field curriculutH ~lJld instruction should he selected to

develop these simultaneoush- and include exposure to the philosophies

and (thics of thc disciplines

The absence of a qualin- differerlliated secondary progrll11 flH gifted students

is not a neutral position it is 1 choice that will result in deficit skill dCeopmcnt

and student apathy At worr it ill result in the disillusionment some of the

best minds in the country


i

GALLAGHER16

References

Arlin P K amp Levin L (1998) A deelopmenta perspc((ic on giftedness

HeetlrcIoltnlld I )4~~5i(1 Baxter Jvlagolda Jvl B (J 987) Comparing open-ended inteljcs lnd standardized mea- Hair

sun of inrelieefUal development ollilla Strfmt PCIJoiJle 28 443~44S -i

BdL E (2004) Promoring StUdUHS argumenr consrrncriOll and collahorativc debate in thc Hell science classfl)om rn ~ 1 C Linn E A Davis amp P Bell (Eds J Imimlt J1lrOltrrIOtS h~middot

seimC IIiCilioll (pp 11 i-145) lal11ah 1 Lawrence Erlballl11

rkrningcr V amp Yates C (J (95) Formal operational thought in rhe gifted A postshy H(ln~

Piagetian pnspecriC Hu(ti (nilli I) 220~224 HUN

Rirnn B L (l991 Formal operHional nlsolling Illodes Predictors of critical thinking

abilit ies alld grade assigned Iw reacher in sciencc and nlarhemltltics il[ student in

grades nine rhrough [tke Ollljli ill Sciei( 28 2()-2~4 InhclcL

Buehl 1 amp Alnlnder P (2001) lorivarion and pnr~HlllaJl(e ditferemes in srudelJ[

dOllllin-specific epiSrllllUI()~illt11 bel iet profiles ilIHlIll FdllClitiolfll NCilllrchOII1i

middoti2 (N-- - 2(

ClIlO I (200i) Lpistcl]ologicai bclid~ IJlld a[lproaches to Icllning Ih~ir through lh secol1dan chool wd their influcncc Oil lCademic pn~lrn1alKe Bllti_f lotmil

tdlildtiOllit -) 205- 221 Kanl

ClIl 1 amp Alexander I (I )()6) Xhere giftd children do 1Ild do nO[ cxcel on llleracogshy

n irin lasb Noel) NcriCiI 18 12lt 1( 1)

Cherne L 11 VinrCl J amp Chlrnc j1 l (200i) NucleH problem s()h-ln~ Kanl

elise stUlh of expert-I1Oicl differences hllliSlletoll fI(the iVdmtI of

Seillle w 1-- hi 11 T H (lascL R amp iarr 1 J (itk) (19HHl Ihc Itttn If

NJ Lawrence Erlbaulll King I

CsiksCIHIll ihali 1 1 Ib rJundt K amp Whakn S ( 1 )94) ]tIIIItc tieillgcn 11( mou of I 1 JifCCC-S Iiiirifllllln Bmrou ( PrlmiddotSS ~

[lidson I L amp I I tJ)Hj)lh roll ofimighr in ilwlIeuual ~ifredncs King l

(dial Child (jlltrtal ]8 is-hi dc Urnl 1 amp lLlll~jl 1 11()()iIlhlmiddot riariollshil hcmlln 1biliriLs and slt1rshy

regllbrld Ic~lrning l ilkncc ti) imcraLTiolb with leIck-mil sdt~lomcpt Ild gender

iglllbiit) lirlI ( 2() 1 ) S

Felder R (19~J 1 kCl our s1Udenrs Dac hrrlLl and Ruhcllo ChtlJiicd KItin

Fdll(iltOi31 10(- j() d Cllb~hcr J l-Llrrallilll C ( 0 (olcn1lt1ll ~1 R (J 9F) UlilIkllgc or boredom Ciftld Ii

tlldIHS ics on rhir ((Pi1 NUiCli 19 132~l(1 iI

Callagher S A (l)lt)H 11 he ((lld 10 ulrinl rhinking I he scheille lilt llleH1in~ht KIo I

ditttTcnriation ii Hill(IiII 8li iL)) 12-20 ic Calb~her S 1 (2()()()1 l rhmiddot to slience expcrtiscmiddot In F Dixon amp S Kronl](I

0100[1 ( l IitI)i u (lllllIO1 [PI 1()~middot+6(J) I1U) TX (n

Irufroc k Prns larson 1

CipsoJ] 1 brdulll 1 0 Ic1111ll L t 19S)1 Rcll(ollhil hC[Cll1 t(lrmal-opltTniullll dlOughr and ttllhclrud ditkulrie in geflLtiS problem IUIilidl ofRlsldJ(f ill --I J gt~

Slilll( ( S 1 1--S2 I Loell (


17 DESIGNED TO fiT

ul

IX

Gorodetsky 1 amp Klavir R (2003) What can we learn from how giftedaverage pupils

describe their processes of problem solving) Learning amp Instruction 13 305-326 Grabner R Neubauer A amp Srern E (2006) Superior performance and neural efficiencv

Ihe impact of intelligence and expertise Brain Research Bulletin 69 422-439 Haicr R J JUl1g R E Yeo R A Head K amp Alkire M r (200t) Srrllcrural brain

variHion and general inrelligence Netlroimage J L 425-435 Henderson S (J 995) Vh do I hae ro be here) The Advanced Placement srudelH in

firs(~vear composition Problems and isslles in cognitive development journal ondar) Gifted EduCtlri(Jl 7 )24-532

Hong L (19)9) Swdying the mind of rhe gifted ROfper Relieu 21 244-2)2 Hurst R amp Milkenr 11 (1996) Facilitaring successful prediccion problem gt(living in

biology through application ofskill theor jOllnJal ill Scimce ) 541-)52

Inhclder fl amp Piager j (19)8) the cililrflIor1I IlrO-fi((

Jew York Basic fI()oks

Jarvin L amp Subomik R (2006) Understanding elitc taient ill acadcmil domaim A

dcvclopmcl1(al ttajccwn from hasic ahilities O scholarlv producrivitvcmisfr In E A Dixon amp S 1 Moon (Eek) thc hillidbook (pp205-220) vhco TX Prufrock Press

Kancsky L (1)92) Gifred children and thc learning process Imights on both tlom rhe

rcsearch III E Miinks amp Xi Peters (Eds) J(tlmr r1( (pp 1))middot161) Asscn

Ihe 0lctherlands Van CorClUll

Kanevsky L amp KeighlcvL (2003) 1~) produce or nor ro produce understanding hOi dum and the honor in umkrlchkl111cnr RCIitll26 2()2R

Kauflll]n J C Gentile C r amp Bllf J (200)) Do gifted sflllknr writers and crec)(ive

writing experts raIL lTlcni in till same Child QlltlltCrl 4) 2()O-265 King P v1 amp Kitchener K S (1)94) jll(zr1II IllI

flild illtcllltfli ill flrocsCm fllld (lIn San

Francisco Josse~ Bass

King l 1 amp Kitchencr K S (2004) Iefieltivc judgllllm Ihcorv and research on thl

dtveioplllelH ()f pircmic assllmptions through adulrhood Fdilolfiolltll

YJ(I) )-lR

Kitchener K S (1 )HI) Cogllition Il1ctalugnirioll and episttmic cognition A rhrcltlevel

model of cognitivc pnllc fl1I11II11I )11 dOjJ 1IItl1 I 6 222~252 Klein J T (I ))3) Blurring CLIcking mel crossing Permcation and thc fracturing of

discipline In E lesscr-DlidO D R ShUlllV amp D J Shan (Eds) (Pl 1 Hi-21 I) Charlnwsdle Uniersin

of Virginia Press

Kloss R J (19)4) nudge is hest Helping srudems throllgh rhe Iern schellll of intll

Iccruat Jeel0pllhnr I] I i 1-1 lH

Kronholm M 1 (19J) l Ihe i mp)ct of dCIdnpmenral instruction on rcHen ill iudgmellL

RCIieU ofHigber ErlIldtillll I i 1))-middot2)) Larson R V amp Richmk 1 11 1 L)J 1 ugusr) Boredom in (hi middle scilll() I

ears Blaming schoolgt erus gtIamitlg mdenrs 1l11encdll jOIiJIiI OjliJI(I[JOII 9)

418-44) Lmell C X amp 0unnen j i 2()()i i Tesling the adulr dCelopme1( I()CI of [lahel

hvpothesis HOI1l0gillCOll hmiddot lln position mllaboldtile learning groups and grcldu

ate student sarisfanion tllrtr 11 IY) 1)0


L GtgtLlA(HER18

Ludlow B L amp Voodrum D T (1)82) Problem-sohing and aerag~

Icarners on a multiple discrimination task (ild

Matthews D amp lkLwghlin T 1)94) EHects otleHIlr-cclHcln acthitics on

achievement and students preterences in [So hiih 5c11Ol lLtrSes HI(tPWdl

fllld AOo)li -8 28)-286 ivlcDonJkl J (I )Kl) Cogniric dcnlopmenr Jnd the rlUdU or geometric contcllr

Rlslrd ill f(ltbcJlldti f((cilwm 20 -11-)4

vlontlgue 1 (19() 1 J Cihnl and Icnning diabkd gifrcd smdllls lise of knowledge and

usc of mrriHIllHicli and prohlem sohing srrarcgic I I(uuioll oftII

11 Y))-+II

middotluis K (2004) ierson(rl cpisrcmologv and marhcmuics - critical rcic and smhesis

of research RcIlli lifdll(lIli()Ii Retii -1 31--3-- Neher H amp Scholllnllr-middotikim 1 (20021 Sclf-regubted ilIKC with hiohl

gitted students l11e rok of cogn it i l l110t i UiOll] L pist cillologicd md cm [ron l1](llshy

[11 (1liahle linif Stili lin 3( I i iC)_-I

Nelson C E (I )8)) Skcwered on th unicorns horn 111lt iluion or the rr(lckotf between content and LTitk1 thinking in the lcaching otsliLllcC [n L X row (Edi

(nth II iii hI j(ltIlaquo rpp 17_-) (lshingrotl DC ]11[onll

Scimee (ltrehers AsOl iou ion

Nelson c E (1 )9() Studellt dicrsir rCl]uircs ditknm appro(lLhcs to collqc tcaciling

Cln in math llld sckncc iIIlT(dl Fiehtllltl(ri S((illhl -10 1(1)-1)

Niaz L amp Robinson Xi (1 j)2) IW1l algllrithmic mode [(l Ol1ccprur1 gCs[1lt in

1Il1lkrstanding rill blhavior of gibe An cpiSlclllOiogic11 pcrspccric Rt(Igt ii)(fshy

IIII 0 ic(bliologiCd hhl(iltiOi J(J )5-(H

Ilttry V ( II (I JeD) hJlII ojilferlld tllirl erb(lt r(ICOPJltJ iii tilt ieiln J Idllltll NeW York Holt Rinehart amp iINon

Plucker J A amp kInrire J (1 l9()) lldel11il sllnilbilin ill high-pOIClHill middle school StlldllltS Cifra (hlld I() --1middot1

Rahinmviu 0 CIar R (llJH)) Cq rulturc Ilnd proces in high U)11Pl lent plrr()rmOlllcmiddot In I D Horcmill 0 1 OBrkn ([k) 111 1111r1Ii1fmte4

11 perpeelIlc (PI -)-)8) ahjn~[oil DC rmCIIlCn ycltologkJI

-soc ia[i 0 n

RohimoJl amp Clinkcnbeard l R (1 ))8) Clftcdncss An cxccprlonaiirv examined

AIIlliltl1 RIIicll j) 11- 151

Ruh1I1 L amp RcI S ((()() Pancrn ohdi~rcglliatiotl jl(men of strHcS

lISC 11llOllg I[)v-Khiing mel high-lchicing univnsin sludlHs ROi lt11leu 8 14K-I

Rv(m 1 (I )k+) loniwring [Xl (ol1lprci1lnsion Inciiidud dirkrcllns in

ul gttandards JOIIiIId

SaL U (2004) A npls ()fhiftd adobccnrsoilld

Schummll 1 (I ))l 11 lOllccprualilllriol1 O(CpiSlcllloiogical hdicl~ and thcir

role 011 kamint In R (lrtlCr ( i A Alexander (Lds) dOllIiX( lid ilitJlC

(iOIl Itit tCXI 2i--fOI liillbJc 1 LlTClllC Erlblllll1

Scitorn1l1er 1 amp DUIlIlLil l 1Jrl Epistcmologicti bdd~ or littcd high chuol

studcllls RalIi 19 1-middot1 )(


SChOlllll1(

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DESICNED FiT

Schommer-AikinsL Duell 0 K amp Hurter R (2005) Epistemological mathshy

emarical probkm-solving beliefs and academic of middle school students

Ihe 105289-304 Shieer S amp ]1aker C J 199-) Enrichment and acceleration An meniew 1I1d new

directions In ~ Colangelo amp C Davis Haildboo edllcation 99-110) Boston Allm amp Bacon

Shore B M (2000) ktacognitiol1 and Hexibilitmiddot differences in how gifted

children think In R C Friedman amp B 1 Shore (Elk) rllllts ulljf)dillg CogshylIitioli and dlleopllllt 16--1Sn vrashil1gton DC American PsChological

Association

Shore B 1 amp Irving J (200j) Inquirv as a Il(dagogicallink hetween expnie lnc

giftedness111e lbili( lI1d inquin resc1ch group at 1cCili Lnhmiddotcrir

fwd tofld IlIteliirUllilidl O( 1)5-40

Shore B fL amp Lazar 1 (1996) differences in time alltlcatiol1 Irhlc-m

-8 11411-S49

Sowell L R 1cters()ll B S lhol11pon P 1 e1cuIllLmiddot S [ Il~nklt nill L amp lc)gl A V (2003l bpping cortical Cross rhe human lit~ pan MUIII

iVmoicillIr( () 309-51 i

Span )1 amp Oertool11-COrSIll iL R (19H6) Informatioll ng hmiddot intellectual

pupils sullillg Illarhcmuical prohlems Frill(tlliolldl Stil 1 Alarfeillrltio -

273-291 SteineL H H amp Carr 1 12(05) C

more preci undersundinf of Hrclgr RIIiCli 15 21)-21

denmiddotlopl11lnt in children Toward

di fferenccs ill i mel Iigencl Ldi(tltlOlIr

Stcimmiddotr H H amp Clrr 1 (200() 1 r(ldolIIl11t oproJIeil -ollilI Iii gijicrl lllirl Ilmgl~iiil) (fidllll lc(rr(J liml d(fo(illiilt to edliCtiolliI

I-bllppauge lY Ioa Science

Srnnbcrg R J (Ed) (191-12) flIIrll)(o ahliililll illllllgolec ~e York Cambridge

Unlnsir Press

StLrnberg RI (2()()~ L hroJd ie or il1telligencefllc thl(l~ of sllcccssful

COllilltilig lotrildmiddot Jritti(1 illlt R(tllc 55 15)-1 i-l

Sllbotnik R F (2()(Ul doicC1[ pathway to lmll1LIllC ill seicnlL Lcsom irom the

music COIlSLratoIY III P CLTmch- amp L ledcrlllltln (hisl SUOi([ (rII(lItioll [tllII

rnmitllloi( i1Hd pllblli 2)i-502) Burke lOS Pre

lhonl1sI- (200S) RCiing and

ethnicity Il()n~ gifted high SdlOUI sllIdcJl(

Wluing 1 (1989) Logical IllCe-sln to mlkc line graphs j(llnldl itl middotcima J( 3-1-3 -q

Veins[Ock 1 )culllan Y amp iaiuk 1 2()) I) liing thc point or [hL nomh

of wdcllts to icklltit Ltliaiouo argumiddot I11cnts )( 1) -94

Wilkinson V K amp 1)lt)1 i Ih influencc of collegc stmle-nt

logical Ull clecrlLi to h- i 11 ~ prO(SL~ ([Ier rcb iN UJ~Ji()

Vilkinsoll X K amp Sdmart l II I 9fCllhc oricllLltioll I gittLd

adolcsccnrs 11 tL (d 11[ model Reports hJ r6-l)-k

Young E (2001 hyJun(i rlh l)uildillg blocks ()tlir~ fJ COlriu j(gt--+H


19

GALLAGHER20

Yurgelun-1()dd D A amp Kilgore X D (2006) harmiddotmiddotre8ted acridt in the prefrontal

cortex increases with age during adolescence A preliminary f1RI study Neuroscience Lmer406194-19()

Zhang L F (J 999) Furrher cross-cultural validation of rill theory of menul self-governshymenr journal 133 16)-1)1

Zhang L F amp atkins D (200 II Cognitivc dcvcloplllll1t llld stUdcnt approaches to

learning An investigation ofPerns theor~ vith Clullcse and US uniersitv students Higher EduCfltiol1 41239-2(1

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or ofd~ltenc~~~Jl~nt ~[hrhe lack of~igrificance their curriculum How do we sustain gifted students desire to learn while still preparing thcm for college and

life At the very lease hoI can we keep them from skipping class The answers

to these questions lie in the qualitative differences gifted srudents bring into the

classroom New research on the brain may well provide us with nelV ways to map

and describe these differences (see Figure 1j Even no elidence of qualitative

differences from both psvciloiogy and education provide a strong rationale for

modifying conrenr ell1phlizing thinking strategies and using student perspecshy

~reatea n~~llil~~j~tt~rc~~~at~I~-goals that are respelrru[ consisrent with seco-zruv instruction

A Rationale for Multidimensional Content Differentiation

Copious Challenging Content

Cifted students spongc-like absorprion of new information is a defining trait

Cognitive scientists have isolated at least three skills related to IQ that comhine

to create an advantage in acquiring int()fJnatiol1 According to Steiner and Carr

(2()Ol) in LlI1rs who (1) react to new information quickly (2) accomrnodare new information or habituate quickly and OJ habituated inflHmation to seek

out new stimuli quickk grow into children with high IQs Ihese same fKtors-~

rapid inforlllati()n12roc(ss~lg habit~tio~~~f1~J)rCerenCe fO[rtweltv-also are crucial to expcrt perl~)rn1ancc

Betwecl]ligh=TcTZhildren and tTle expert adults arc gifted adolescents who also

(1) learn better when taught two to three times t~l~tcr than average (rapid response to srimuli) ren]SIl1hq FHncr- repetitions (Larson amp Richards 1991)

which suggcsts h~~bitl1atioll andr~r~_)1d better to opell-ended inquiry-orishy

emeJ instrucriol1 (noveir- seeking Sak 2004) preferring to learn somcthlllg~~~w evel1 Illorc than typical Iv popular hands-on activities ilthough il is impossible to

make GlllSal or developmcntal ties based on these separate bodies of research the

similarities arc clear

As gifted adolescents cng~lge in the cycle of seeking responding to and

accommodating new informarion they acql1irc an extensive knowledge base

which contributes to acadcmic SLiccess Helping gifted students acquire a subshystambl knowledge base is th( hr( csential component of an dfectile secondary

program

Should differenrinioll then foclls on intensive memorization tacts No

Gifted srudems consbremil report thlt the dominant cmphasi on LlCrual learnshy

ing leads to thcir disenchantment IIith school (Csikszenrmihahi Rarhunde amp Whalen 1993 Gallagher --larradine amp Coleman 199- Kmelskv amp Keighley

2003 Plucker amp 1clntir 1 )96) lhe extensive knmdeug hasc giftcd students


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