THE LANGUAGE OF COMPOSITION

Chapter 1An Introduction to Rhetoric

Rhetoric: The art of analyzing all the choices involving language that a writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make a situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful and effective; the specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a situation.

Key Elements of Rhetoric

Rhetorical Choices: The particular choices a writer or speaker makes to achieve meaning, purpose, or effect.

Rhetorical situation: the convergence in a situation of exigency (the need to write), audience and purpose.

Rhetorical Triangle: more on this later.

Key Elements of Rhetoric

Why is this an effective speech? Rhetoric is always situational: it has a

context – the occasion or the time and place it was written or spoken – and a purpose or goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve.

Rhetoric Man is effective because he has an occasion and a goal or purpose. Think about it, without them, what use is he? He just looks like a rocker from the 80s.

Context and Purpose When we read any text, we ask about the

context in which it was written. Then we consider the purpose.

Is the speaker trying to win agreement? persuade us to action? evoke sympathy? make us laugh? inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate?

Context Sometimes context arises from current events or cultural bias. What is bias? Ex. Someone writes about freedom of

speech in a community that has experienced hate graffiti must take that context into account and adjust the purpose of the piece so as not to offend the audience.

Think of some examples where you would consider the context of what you have to say.

The Rhetorical Triangle Here it is, the Aristotelian rhetorical

triangleSpeaker

SubjectAudience

First you choose a subject Then you evaluate what you already

know about it What others have said about it And what kind of evidence or proof will

sufficiently develop your position.

Speaker Aristotle called the person that a writer

took on as a speaker as a persona. A persona is the character the speaker

creates when he or she writes or speaks This depends on the context, purpose,

subject and audience. Are you speaking as a poet, comedian,

scholar, expert, critic, citizen, etc.

Audience Before you speak, you must consider

your audience. What do they know about your topic? What do they feel about your topic? How will you communicate with them to

listen to you?

After analyzing the relationship of speaker to subject, audience to speaker, and audience to the subject, a writer is ready to make some choices.

Speaker

SubjectAudience

Ethos, Logos, and Pathos Ethos- the credibility of the speaker Logos-the reasoning or logic in the

speaker’s argument. Pathos- Emotion of the speech (not

necessarily the speaker’s, but more explanation in a minute.)

Now, relearn and use these terms instead

Ethos = Ethical appeal

Logos = Logical appeal

Pathos = Emotional appeal

Ethos Ethos = Ethics=Ethical appeal If someone is ethical they have credibility. Ethical appeal has to do with the speaker.

Is the speaker ethically credible? This does not mean whether or not the

speaker is a good person. It means the speaker appeals to the

audience as a credible source.

Example If a speaker wants to talk to you about

adolescent alcoholism, what kind of speaker would have the most ethical appeal?

If a teacher wants to teach you about algebra, what kind of teacher would have the most ethical appeal?

Another approach Acknowledge a counterargument.to anticipate objections or opposing views. You agree (concede) that an opposing

argument may be true, but then you deny (refute) the validity of all or part of the argument.

THIS STRENGTHENS YOUR ARGUMENT!!! It shows you really thought about it.

Pathos Pathos = emotion = emotional appeal Does the writing appeal or create

emotions in the reader? Too much emotional appeal is rarely

effective, but if a skilled writer tells an anecdote or uses certain figurative language, he or she can create an emotional appeal to the audience.

Too much emotion An argument that appeals only to the

emotions is by definition weak—it’s generally considered propaganda.

Arrangement When you write or analyze, consider how

the essay and its individual paragraphs or sections are arranged.

HOW A WRITER STRUCTURES THE ARGUMENT WITHIN A FRAMEWORK DEPENDS UPON HIS OR HER INTENDED PURPOSE AND EFFECT

Create a Booklet; flip book Read pages 13-25 Label your book Arrangement/

Organization Read and take notes on (you can work in

groups of three and do three each) The Classical Model Narration Description Process

Analysis Exemplification Comparison Contrast Classification and Division Definition Cause and Effect

THE CLASSICAL MODEL The introduction – introduces the

audience to the subject. In latin, the word exordium means “beginning a web.” No matter how long, it piques the interest of the reader. This is where the writer often establishes his or her ethical appeal. Why is this important in this spot?

THE CLASSICAL MODEL The narration provides factual

information and background material on the subject at hand. The level of detail a writer uses depends upon the audience’s knowledge of the subject. This often appeals to emotions because often the writer tries to make the audience have an emotional response to the importance of an issue.

THE CLASSICAL MODEL The confirmation, usually the major part

of the text, includes the development or the proof needed to make the writer’s case—the nuts and bolts of an essay. This contains the most specific and concrete detail in the text. This has the strongest appeal to logos.

THE CLASSICAL MODEL The refutation addresses the

counterargument. It is often a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion. This is often placed near the end, but it may be placed anywhere in the writing.

THE CLASSICAL MODEL The conclusion brings the essay to a

close. It can be one or several paragraphs. Here the writer usually appeals to emotions and reminds the reader of the ethos established earlier. Do not repeat what came before, but make sure the last words and ideas of a text are those the audience is MOST LIKELY TO REMEMBER

Arrangement – Writer’s Purpose

Narration Writers often use narration as a way to

enter into their topics. Everyone loves a good story. (Remember that!)

Rebecca Walker tells a story about her son to lead into her explanation of why she put together the anthology Putting Down the Gun (p. 412).

Arrangement-Writer’s Purpose Description Description emphasizes the senses by

painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels.

Description is often used to establish the mood of the piece. Mood plays in to the message and persuasion.

Arrangement-Writer’s purpose Process analysis This explains how something works, how

to do something or how something was done, We use this when we explain how to bake bread, set up an Excel spreadsheet, etc.

The key to successful process analysis is clarity: it’s important to explain a subject clearly and logically, with transitions that mark the sequence of major steps, stages, or phases of the process

Arrangement--Exemplification Examples Providing a series of examples—facts,

cases or instances—turns a general idea into a concrete one.

You can use one long one or several in a row.

You are familiar with someone saying “Let me give you an example.”

Induction Aristotle taught that examples are a type

of logical proof called induction. That is a series of specific examples leads

to a general conclusion. Read an excerpt from “I know Why the

Caged Bird Cannot Read”by Francine Prose.

Identify her argument.

Arrangement—Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and Contrast: juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and differences.

This is used often on examinations where you have to discuss subtle differences.

Arrangement—Classification and Division

It is important for readers to sort material into major categories.

Answer “What goes together and why?” You may be asked to analyze and essay

that offers categories or to apply them. Most of the time a writer’s task is to

develop his or her own categories and to find a distinctive way of breaking down a larger idea into parts.

Arrangement—Definition Often a definition is used to clarify a

term. In discourse, however, often a writer will

take an entire essay to establish what is a definition of something.

“In Search of the Good Family” by Jane Howard. She analyzes ten characteristics that define a family.

Arrangement—Cause and Effect

This depends upon crystal clear logic. It is often signaled by a why in the title or

opening paragraph. In “I know Why the Caged Bird Cannot

Read” Francine Prose sets out what she believes are the causes for high school student’s lack of enthusiasm for reading.

Friday’s Agenda Check Diagnostic Test answers

for at least 1-23. Write four facts you learned.

Finish notes Read pg. 26-27 and take notes Be able to answer the question:

What causes rhetoric to miss the mark (think speaker, audience, subject, context).

Syllogism Typically a 3 part statement Major premise, minor premise, and

conclusion All humans are mortal. Mrs. Sloat is a human. Mrs. Sloat is mortal.Be careful that is logical and not generalized.

Ad Hoc Ad Hoc Argument- Latin for “To the

Thing” or “For it’s Purpose” Adding to your argument on the spot to

make it valid Fallacy: Person A: "No Scotsman puts

sugar on his porridge.“ Person B: "But my uncle Angus likes sugar with his porridge.“ Person A: "Ah yes, but no true Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge."

Begging the Question

Circular reasoning Based on a faulty

assumption Circular reasoning is

bad. Therefore, it is not good.

Monday’s Agenda Bellringer- Complete the logos, pathos,

and ethos sheet Read “Our Barbies, Our Selves” Identify the parts of the Rhetorical

Triangle Identify the context and purpose Identify the writer’s thesis Does she present a counterargument? If

so, what?

Summarizer Pick 10 of the terms below On one side write the term On the other side, write key terms from

the definition or draw a picture Rhetoric, rhetorical triangle, context,

purpose, subject, speaker, audience, ethos, logos, pathos, counterargument, classical model, narration pattern of development, description pattern of development, process analysis, exemplification, comparison/contrast, cause and effect

Tuesday Agenda Take the quiz Re-read “Our Barbies, Our Selves” Annotate (take notes/add observations)

and highlight Define all college level words Which patterns of

development/organizational choices did she use?

Highlight/mark examples of logos, pathos, and ethos

Do you agree with the Ken paragraph? Why or why not?