David WillmoreLundy - Period 0511 September, 2010

Questions to Consider:Chapter 1:

America Before Columbus

Questions to Consider:1. What kinds of Indian cultures existed in the New World before the arrival of

Columbus? Were they homogenous or diverse? In what way? Describe some of the Indian communities discussed in the article. How did these cultures and communities compare with Europe?

2. What did the European settlers in South and North America generally think of the Indians and their cultures? Why? How did Europeans and Indians misunderstand each other and treat each other at their meetings?

3. Describe some basic principles of Indian religions. What was the Indian’s relationship with the land, forests, and animals?

4. Why does this article put particular stress on Columbus’ second voyage? What is meant by the “Columbian Exchange”? What was exchanged? Among what people? What parts of the globe were affected? With what consequences, good and bad?

5. How have the land and the animals in North America changed since the Europeans first arrived? What animal had a particular influence on North America? Why?

Responses:1. Prior to Columbus’ arrival in the New World, the Americas were filled with advanced

civilizations, diverse in many ways. Some Indians loved war and conflict, while others did not; some were ruled by female councils, while others banned women. The Indian cultures at the time were very advanced - although not in the same ways as European cultures. Instead of possessing weapons or advanced technology, the Indians had a complex relationship with nature, keeping the natural order. Also, hundreds of years before the modern US government took shape, the Iroquois League ran Congress-like council meetings as a form of government, much like the representative systems that were beginning to see use in Europe (such as Parliament in England). Furthermore, the Iroquois protected freedom of speech and allowed women the right to vote for officeholders - something the United States would not allow until the 1900s.

2. The European settlers and explorers in the Americas looked down upon the Native Americans with disdain, not believing that the massive and impressive works that were built were actually the work of Indians. Instead, they chose to believe that the works were the result of earlier contact from Vikings, Phoenicians, or a lost tribe from Israel. However, most European contact with the Indians was after much of the Indian society had been lost due to epidemics and disease spread by the Europeans. A crucial misunderstanding between the two parties stems from what is described below: the Indians were very generous and gave offerings to many of the Europeans, leading Columbus to believe that they were “childlike”.

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Furthermore, the Indians’ lack of desire to accumulate items of status and wealth was viewed as nothing more than laziness by the white settlers.

3. The Indians followed the basic principle that it was “better to give than to receive” and applied the practice to their interactions with the Europeans, practically showering the newcomers with gifts and trinkets. Most of the Indian’s religious beliefs stemmed from nature, and the complex order that they saw in it. Obeying complicated rules, the Indians tried very hard not to disturb nature. Land was shared because it was sacred; it belonged to everyone, as did the sea and air. Additionally, animals were precious and the hunters killed only what was needed to support their tribe for fear of angering the spirits. Much of the religion was ritual based as well.

4. The “Columbian Exchange” was a “global swap of animals, plants, people, ailments and ideas” which proved to alter the history of both Europe, Africa and the Americas. American corn was sent to Africa in addition to tobacco, potatoes, beans, squash, tomatoes and peanuts being sent to Europe. In exchange, European horses, cows, chickens, pigs, bees, coffee, wheat and rice were sent to the Americas.

5. The horse had a particularly significant impact on North America, as it was quickly adopted by buffalo hunting tribes in the great Plains, allowing them to increase their speed and their advantage over the buffalo, as well as becoming a symbol of wealth.

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