PSYCHOPATHOLOGYIn 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves. Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to ‘remove both big toes’ or to ‘whip the devil out of them’. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to assign them a white person to ‘take care of them’.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia despite having no genetic predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is a cultural bias in test questions.

THE JUSTICE SYSTEMPublicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016).

Dixon (2015), used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al. (2006), asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to Black Victims.

BROWN EYE, BLUE EYESOne day after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all ages, displaying similar results.

Students were divided into two groups, dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al. (2015), found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns demonstrated no preference. Pirachio et al. (2018), concluded that children may acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017), who found that 358 White children aged 5–12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a learned behaviour or schemata.

Clark and Clark (1947) investigated 253 black children aged between 3-7 who were given four

identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’

‘good’ or ‘bad’. They found that from 3 years, children could

differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks

bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a

young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a

dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s

endured. The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed

superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test

was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study

Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead,

black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their

‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Inez Prosser (1933) was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of

children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools

experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were

keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black

peers and teachers.

Psychopathology

In 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves.

Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to

“remove both big toes” or to “whip the devil out of them”. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused

laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to

assign them a white person to “take care of them”.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be

diagnosed with schizophreniadespite having no genetic

predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large

compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is

a cultural bias in test questions.

Challenging White PsychologyWhite

Brown eye, blue eyes. One day after the assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social

experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all

ages, displaying similar results. Students were divided into two groups,

dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority

group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the

Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra

privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t

long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance

condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse

on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al (2015) found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant

preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns

demonstrated no preference. Pirachio at al (2018) concluded that children may

acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour

and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017) who found that 358 White children aged

5-12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but

demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a

learned behaviour or schemata.

The Justice System

Publicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number

of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police

misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016)

Dixon (2015) used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and

officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers

with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White

juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al (2006) asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to

Black Victims.

@Findlotte

Clark and Clark (1947) investigated 253 black children aged between 3-7 who were given four

identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’

‘good’ or ‘bad’. They found that from 3 years, children could

differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks

bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a

young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a

dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s

endured. The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed

superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test

was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study

Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead,

black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their

‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Inez Prosser (1933) was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of

children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools

experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were

keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black

peers and teachers.

Psychopathology

In 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves.

Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to

“remove both big toes” or to “whip the devil out of them”. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused

laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to

assign them a white person to “take care of them”.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be

diagnosed with schizophreniadespite having no genetic

predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large

compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is

a cultural bias in test questions.

Challenging White PsychologyWhite

Brown eye, blue eyes. One day after the assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social

experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all

ages, displaying similar results. Students were divided into two groups,

dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority

group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the

Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra

privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t

long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance

condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse

on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al (2015) found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant

preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns

demonstrated no preference. Pirachio at al (2018) concluded that children may

acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour

and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017) who found that 358 White children aged

5-12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but

demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a

learned behaviour or schemata.

The Justice System

Publicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number

of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police

misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016)

Dixon (2015) used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and

officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers

with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White

juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al (2006) asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to

Black Victims.

@Findlotte

Clark and Clark (1947) investigated 253 black children aged between 3-7 who were given four

identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’

‘good’ or ‘bad’. They found that from 3 years, children could

differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks

bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a

young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a

dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s

endured. The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed

superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test

was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study

Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead,

black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their

‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Inez Prosser (1933) was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of

children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools

experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were

keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black

peers and teachers.

Psychopathology

In 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves.

Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to

“remove both big toes” or to “whip the devil out of them”. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused

laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to

assign them a white person to “take care of them”.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be

diagnosed with schizophreniadespite having no genetic

predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large

compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is

a cultural bias in test questions.

Challenging White PsychologyWhite

Brown eye, blue eyes. One day after the assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social

experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all

ages, displaying similar results. Students were divided into two groups,

dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority

group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the

Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra

privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t

long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance

condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse

on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al (2015) found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant

preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns

demonstrated no preference. Pirachio at al (2018) concluded that children may

acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour

and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017) who found that 358 White children aged

5-12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but

demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a

learned behaviour or schemata.

The Justice System

Publicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number

of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police

misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016)

Dixon (2015) used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and

officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers

with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White

juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al (2006) asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to

Black Victims.

@Findlotte

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead, black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their ‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Clark and Clark (1947) investigated 253 black children aged between 3-7 who were given four

identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’

‘good’ or ‘bad’. They found that from 3 years, children could

differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks

bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a

young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a

dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s

endured. The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed

superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test

was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study

Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead,

black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their

‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Inez Prosser (1933) was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of

children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools

experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were

keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black

peers and teachers.

Psychopathology

In 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves.

Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to

“remove both big toes” or to “whip the devil out of them”. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused

laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to

assign them a white person to “take care of them”.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be

diagnosed with schizophreniadespite having no genetic

predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large

compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is

a cultural bias in test questions.

Challenging White PsychologyWhite

Brown eye, blue eyes. One day after the assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social

experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all

ages, displaying similar results. Students were divided into two groups,

dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority

group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the

Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra

privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t

long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance

condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse

on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al (2015) found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant

preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns

demonstrated no preference. Pirachio at al (2018) concluded that children may

acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour

and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017) who found that 358 White children aged

5-12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but

demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a

learned behaviour or schemata.

The Justice System

Publicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number

of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police

misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016)

Dixon (2015) used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and

officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers

with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White

juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al (2006) asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to

Black Victims.

@Findlotte

Inez Prosser (1933), was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black peers and teachers.

Clark and Clark (1947), investigated 253 black children aged between 3–7 who were given four identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’ ‘good’ or ‘bad’.

They found that from 3 years, children could differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’.

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s endured.

The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Clark and Clark (1947) investigated 253 black children aged between 3-7 who were given four

identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’

‘good’ or ‘bad’. They found that from 3 years, children could

differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks

bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a

young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a

dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s

endured. The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed

superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test

was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study

Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead,

black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their

‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Inez Prosser (1933) was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of

children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools

experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were

keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black

peers and teachers.

Psychopathology

In 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves.

Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to

“remove both big toes” or to “whip the devil out of them”. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused

laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to

assign them a white person to “take care of them”.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be

diagnosed with schizophreniadespite having no genetic

predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large

compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is

a cultural bias in test questions.

Challenging White PsychologyWhite

Brown eye, blue eyes. One day after the assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social

experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all

ages, displaying similar results. Students were divided into two groups,

dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority

group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the

Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra

privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t

long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance

condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse

on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al (2015) found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant

preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns

demonstrated no preference. Pirachio at al (2018) concluded that children may

acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour

and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017) who found that 358 White children aged

5-12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but

demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a

learned behaviour or schemata.

The Justice System

Publicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number

of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police

misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016)

Dixon (2015) used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and

officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers

with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White

juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al (2006) asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to

Black Victims.

@Findlotte

EMPLOYMENTUK Gov. (2019) reported that 9% of Black people were unemployed which is the highest ethnic group compared to 4% of White people. If disabled and Black, this figure increases to 16% which is the highest category for unemployment in the UK, compared to 8% of White disabled people.

In education, 85.9% of teachers are White compared to 2.2% of Black teachers with around 1000 Black teachers in a position of leadership (Gov, 2018).

In law enforcement, 93.1% of police officers are White compared to 1.2% of Black Officers which has been a consistent statistic since 2007 (Gov, 2019).

In the NHS, 79.2% of staff in total are White compared to 6.1% of Black people. When examining number of doctors, 53% of Junior/training Doctors are White compared to 6.2% Black and 57% of

Senior Doctors are White compared to 3.5% of Black Doctors (Gov, 2019).

Looking at different types of occupation, 18% of the Caring and Leisure sector are Black people which is significantly higher than any other ethnicity (Gov, 2018)

In America, there appears to be racial discrimination at recruitment level as Kang et al (2016) found that resumes of BAME applicants who had ‘Whitened’ any details that provided racial clues were twice as likely to receive an invitation to interview, whereas Di Stasio & Heath (2019) made fictitious applications to nearly 3200 real British jobs including engineers, marketing, chefs and shop assistants, with appropriate qualifications and ethnic background varying. They found that Black people faced discrimination and had to send 60% more applications to receive a positive response from an employer.

RUBY BRIDGES (1954 – )The first African American to integrate into an elementary school in the South after passing an entrance exam for African American students to assess their academic ability in an all-white school.

Ruby and her mother were escorted to school daily by 4 federal marshals, she walked past vicious crowds screaming racial slurs or in one case, a woman holding a black doll in a coffin. She spent her first day of school in the principal’s office due to the chaos of angry white parents who had withdrawn their white children from the school. Only one teacher was willing to support Ruby, so she was a class of one and didn’t miss a day of school (Michals, 2015).

Challenging White PsychologyWhiteEmployment

UK Gov. (2019) reported that 9% of Black people were unemployed which is the highest ethnic group compared to 4% of White people. If disabled and Black, this figure increases to 16% which is the highest category for unemployment in the UK, compared to 8% of White disabled people.

• In education, 85.9% of teachers are White compared to 2.2% of Black teachers with around 1000 Black teachers in a position of leadership (Gov, 2018).

• In law enforcement, 93.1% of police officers are White compared to 1.2% of Black Officers which has been a consistent statistic since 2007 (Gov, 2019).

• In the NHS, 79.2% of staff in total are White compared to 6.1% of Black people. When examining number of doctors, 53% of Junior/training Doctors are White compared to 6.2% Black and 57% of Senior Doctors are White compared to 3.5% of Black Doctors (Gov, 2019)

• Looking at different types of occupation, 18% of the Caring and Leisure sector are Black people which is significantly higher than any other ethnicity (Gov, 2018)

In America, there appears to be racial discrimination at recruitment level as Kang et al (2016) found that resumes of BAME applicants who had ‘Whitened’ any details that provided racial clues were twice as likely to receive an invitation to interview, whereas Di Stasio & Heath (2019) made fictitious applications to nearly 3200 real British jobs including engineers, marketing, chefs and shop assistants, with appropriate qualifications and ethnic background varying. They found that Black people faced discrimination and had to send 60% more applications to receive a positive response from an employer.

@Findlotte

Ruby Bridges (1954 - )

The first African American to integrate into an elementary school in the South after passing an entrance exam for African American students to assess their academic ability in an all-white school.Ruby and her mother were escorted to school daily by 4 federal marshals, she walked past vicious crowds screaming racial slurs or in one case, a woman holding a black doll in a coffin. She spent her first day of school in the principal's office due to the chaos of angry white parents who had withdrawn their white children from the school. Only one teacher was willing to support Ruby, so she was a class of one and didn’t miss a day of school (Michals, 2015).

UniversityRussell Group universities are known for their reputation for academic achievement around the world, with many sitting at the top of league tables, however there are still wide gaps between Black and White students.In 2018, only 61 Black students were admitted to the University of Cambridge which has slightly increased to 91 students in 2019. This is the first time the proportion of Black students has risen above 3%. The Office for Students analysed cohort data from 2017-18 findings that 80.9% of white students attained 2:1 or 1stdegree compared to 67.7% of Black students. Also degree attainment decreases in correlation with a decrease in A-Level or BTEC entry grades, but White students outperform all other ethnicities. In the same cohort year, 0.6% of professors were Black compared to 90% of White professors.

EducationCharles (2019) challenges the education system which introduces Black identity through a history of slavery, colonialism and is taught from a Eurocentric viewpoint. They argue that this damages Black identities as children are raised with recurrent literature which states they have negative experiences and low achievement in mainstream schooling. However, the exam board Edexcel announced that from September 2019, schools will be able to offer more poems, plays and novels from authors with BAME backgrounds (Edexcel, 2019) and in 2015, the NUS founded the ‘Why is my Curriculum White?’ campaign to highlight the lack of diversity within University texts and course content.

Gilborn et al (2017) analysed 25 years of UK educational policy and the impact of attainment between White and Black students and found that despite each government introducing ‘tougher measures’, the attainment of White students has increased with Black students unable to meet the same standards. Each policy has ‘widened the gap’ with White students always at least 1.5x more likely to attain the dominant benchmark that Black peers. Lastly, in 2014/2015, Black Caribbean students were 3.5x more likely to be permanently excluded from state schools than other students. With boys 4x a likely compare to White males and girls 2x as likely compared to White girls.

EDUCATIONCharles (2019), challenges the education system which introduces Black identity through a history of slavery, colonialism and is taught from a Eurocentric viewpoint. They argue that this damages Black identities as children are raised with recurrent literature which states they have negative experiences and low achievement in mainstream schooling. However, the exam board Edexcel announced that from September 2019, schools will be able to offer more poems, plays and novels from authors with BAME backgrounds (Edexcel, 2019), and in 2015, the NUS founded the ‘Why is my Curriculum White?’ campaign to highlight the lack of diversity within University texts and course content.

Gilborn et al. (2017), analysed 25 years of UK educational policy and the impact of attainment between White and Black students and found that despite each government introducing ‘tougher measures’, the attainment of White students has increased with Black students unable to meet the same standards. Each policy has ‘widened the gap’ with White students always at least 1.5x more likely to attain the dominant benchmark that Black peers. Lastly, in 2014/2015, Black Caribbean students were 3.5x more likely to be permanently excluded from state schools than other students. With boys 4x a likely compare to White males and girls 2x as likely compared to White girls.

Figure 3 illustrates that, while degree attainment largely decreases in correlation with a decrease in A-level and BTEC entry grades in England, White students outperform students of all other ethnicities even when prior attainment is controlled for.

FIGURE 3: PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS QUALIFYING WITH A FIRST- OR UPPER-SECOND-CLASS DEGREES, BY ETHNICITY AND ENTRY QUALIFICATIONS IN ENGLAND

Source: OfS

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14 BLACK, ASIAN AND MINORITY ETHNIC STUDENT ATTAINMENT AT UK UNIVERSITIES: #CLOSINGTHEGAP

CHALLENGING WHITE PSYCHOLOGY

Clark and Clark (1947) investigated 253 black children aged between 3-7 who were given four

identical dolls except for their skin colour. Children were asked to choose a doll which was the ‘nicest’

‘good’ or ‘bad’. They found that from 3 years, children could

differentiate between skin colour but also that 59% of children chose the black doll as ‘doll that looks

bad’ compared to 59% who chose the white doll for ‘nicest’ and 60% for ‘nice skin colour’

They concluded that children who consistently associate positive characteristics to white people will inevitably impact their own self-esteem from a

young age.

Robert Lee Williams II is best known for creating the term ‘ebonics’ which describe American Black English as a language on its own rather than a

dialect. He also created a Black Intelligence Scale of Cultural Homogeneity to demonstrate the effect of a cultural IQ test that many African American’s

endured. The test was used on 100 white and black students and showed that black students showed

superiority to white students, and thus the importance of culture. In a second study, the test

was used on black ‘drop-outs’ and highlights several students with high intelligence indicators.

Kobi Kambon highlighted the need for ‘African-centred Psychology’ stating that it’s difficult to study

Black Psychology as many fail to consider that by studying Black participants, we’re merely studying a reaction to Western culture and oppression. Instead,

black individuals need to share knowledge of African realities and histories to restore their

‘Africanity’ and heritage.

Inez Prosser (1933) was the first black woman to attain a PhD. She researched the self-esteem of

children in integrated and segregated schools and found that Black children from integrated schools

experience social maladjustment, insecurity around social relations with family and teacher and were

keen to leave school early compared to black children who performed better alongside black

peers and teachers.

Psychopathology

In 1851, two illnesses were common among African slaves.

Drapetomania was a mental illness used to explain the cause of slaves running away, the remedy was to

“remove both big toes” or to “whip the devil out of them”. The second was Dysaesthesia Aethiopis which was a mental illness which caused

laziness among slaves and explained their refusal to work. The cure was to whip their skin and to

assign them a white person to “take care of them”.

In modern day, Black Americans are significantly more likely to be

diagnosed with schizophreniadespite having no genetic

predisposition. In 1969, lower IQ scores among Blacks was so large

compared to Whites it was considered a genetic inferiority but is

a cultural bias in test questions.

Challenging White PsychologyWhite

Brown eye, blue eyes. One day after the assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jane Elliott, a teacher and racial activist, conducted a social

experiment on her students which has since been replicated on students of all

ages, displaying similar results. Students were divided into two groups,

dependant on their eye colour, an uncontrollable feature, with the minority

group encouraged to wear armbands to enhance their difference. Students in the

Brown-Eye group were typically the majority and were told they were superior, smarter and given extra

privileges such as front-row seats, longer breaks and more food at lunch. It wasn’t

long before the Brown-Eyed students began to display arrogance

condescending behaviours, name-calling and fighting, whereas Blue-Eyed students isolated and performed worse

on academic tests. This experiment highlights that group status can install racial prejudice and discrimination.

Kelly et al (2015) found that infants at three-months demonstrated a significant

preference for faces from their own ethnicity, whereas newborns

demonstrated no preference. Pirachio at al (2018) concluded that children may

acquire prejudice from their parents implicit cognition, automatic behaviour

and educational normal which is supported by Williams and Steele (2017) who found that 358 White children aged

5-12 years old showed no automatic negativity to Black people but

demonstrated an automatic positivity towards White people, suggesting a

learned behaviour or schemata.

The Justice System

Publicised police violence cases in the USA against unarmed black men reduced the number

of 911 calls. Researchers found that residents in nearby black neighbourhoods were less likely to report crime for over a year after the publicised case, with a loss of 22,000 calls for service. Police

misconduct can powerfully suppress public concerns for safety (Desmond et al. 2016)

Dixon (2015) used a content analysis of random LA news programmes and assessed the racial representations of perpetrators, victims and

officers. The found that Blacks were accurately portrayed as perpetrators, victims and officers

with Whites significantly overrepresented as victims and officers.

American research has found that race is a decisive feature in capital punishment if White

juror hold stereotypical views towards Black appearances. Eberhardt et al (2006) asked naïve participants to judge photos of Black defendants and rate how stereotypically Black they appear and found that when victims where White, the more stereotypically Black defendant is more likely to be sentenced to death compared to

Black Victims.

@FindlotteOverall, evidence from the OfS focused on English universities shows that, once other factors such as prior attainment, gender and age are accounted

students of 17%, and of 10% between White and Asian students (OfS).

STAFF AT UK HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

3 10% of professors were BAME,

FIGURE 4: ACADEMIC STAFF AT UK HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS BY ETHNICITY AND CONTRACT LEVEL, 2017−18

3. which may carry the title of professor but which do not have departmental line management responsibilities’. Other senior contracts include leadership and management responsibilities. These contracts may also be held by people who hold the title of professor. It is likely that the methodology undercounts the number of professors because many will fall into more senior levels, eg heads of department. This should be noted when reviewing contract-level data.

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PROFESSOR

OTHER SENIOR ACADEMIC

OTHER CONTRACT LEVEL

White Black Asian Mixed/other

15 BLACK, ASIAN AND MINORITY ETHNIC STUDENT ATTAINMENT AT UK UNIVERSITIES: #CLOSINGTHEGAP

UNIVERSITYRussell Group universities are known for their reputation for academic achievement around the world, with many sitting at the top of league tables, however there are still wide gaps between Black and White students.

In 2018, only 61 Black students were admitted to the University of Cambridge which has slightly increased to 91 students in 2019. This is the first time the proportion of Black students has risen above 3%.

The Office for Students analysed cohort data from 2017–18 findings that 80.9% of white students attained 2:1 or 1st degree compared to 67.7% of Black students. Also degree attainment decreases in correlation with a decrease in A-Level or BTEC entry grades, but White students outperform all other ethnicities. In the same cohort year, 0.6% of professors were Black compared to 90% of White professors.