challenges to international human resource

Int.J.HumanResourcesDevelopmentandManagement,Vol.12,No.3,2012

CHALLENGESTOINTERNATIONALHUMANRESOURCEMANAGEMENT:

Themanagementofemployeeriskinthehumanitarianaidandsecuritysectors

RogerDarbyPhDCentreforDefenceManagementandLeadershipCranfieldUniversityUKDefenceAcademyShrivenham,UKEmail:[email protected]:+441793785650Fax:+441793782179ChristineWilliamsonMCIPDDutyofCareInternationalLondon,UKEmail:christine@dutyofcareinternational.co.ukwww.dutyofcareinternational.co.ukTel:+447801993250


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Abstract

Amoreseverefocusontheever-changingpoliticalandsecuritygloballandscapehighlightsthe

attendantsafetyandprotectionofhumanitarianaidandsecuritysectoremployeeswhoarguablyare

ingreaterdangertodaythanatanyothertime.Inalmosteveryjurisdictionorganisationshavea

statutorydutytoprovideasafeplaceforstafftoworkandisexpectedtomitigatetherisksstaffmay

reasonablyface.However,theclearmessagefromgovernment,non-governmentagenciesand

securityspecialistsalikeisthattheyshouldbedoingmore.Thekeyissuesinthispaperareaddressed

fromanorganisationalperspective,withafocusontheroleofHRMandthecrucialpartthefunction

shouldplayintheidentification,developmentandimplementationofriskmanagementstrategies,

policiesandpracticestosupportorganisations.Thispaperbuildsonrecentresearchandusingan

exploratoryqualitativeresearchapproachbasedonrelevantINGOandgovernmentcasestudiesthe

analysisrevealsinterestingresultsthatsupportssomeextantresearchwhilstidentifyingkey

challengesfororganisationstomanageinthefuture.Inconclusion,adiscussionofthestudy

implicationsandsuggestionsforfurtherappliedresearchintheareaofriskmanagementinthe

humanitarianaidandsecuritysectorsisproffered.

Keywords:riskmanagement,HRM,humanitarianaid,securitysectormanagement,dutyofcare,

employmentcycle,inter-agencyworking,lessonslearned.

Introduction

Thepurposeofthisresearchwastoundertakeatimelyexaminationoftheroleofhumanresource

management(HRM)practicesandprocessesintheorganisationalsupportofthemanagementofrisk

ofemployeesdeployedtohazardousenvironmentsbyorganisationsinthehumanitarianaidand

securitysectors.Afurtheraimofthisexploratoryresearchwastoidentifycurrentandemergingkey

issuesintheorganisationalsupportaswellasthebarrierstothesuccessofthesupportfor

employeesdeployedindangerousregionsoftheworld.Additionally,thestudywasplannedwitha

viewtocontributingtoexistingtheoryandprovidingusefulmodelsforpractitionerstoutilise.


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Theoreticalbackground

Amoreseverefocusontheever-changingpoliticalandsecuritygloballandscapehighlightsthe

attendantsafetyandprotectionofhumanitarianaidandsecuritysectoremployeesincludingthe

militaryandcivilservants,whoarguablyareingreaterdangertodaythanatanyothertime.Itwould

appearsuchemployeesarenolongerimmunefromincreasingactsofviolenceorterroristattacks

andwouldseeminglyrequiremoreadequatesupportfromtheirorganisationswhilsthavingbeen

deployed.Thispaperdevelopsonresearchandliteraturethatexaminesaidandsecurityorganisation

responsestosecurityriskchallenges(Stoddard&Harmer,2010;Stoddard,Harmer&Haver,2006;,

Stoddard,Harmer&DiDomenico,2009;Brauderlain&Gassmann,2006).Concomitantly,thispaper

alsohighlightstheneedformorefocusonorganisations(governments,non-governmentagencies

(NGOs))toincreasinglyprovideinlawa‘duty-of-care’foritsemployees.However,itisarguedthat

thedutyofcareisoftenadheredtomoreforpreventionratherthancurewithanemphasison

avoidingthepotentiallycatastrophiccostoforganisationsbeingfoundnegligent.Thispaperfurther

promotesthenotionthatmanagementrequiresanintegrated,risk-basedapproachtosecurity

managementofitsemployeessenttoworkinhazardousenvironments.Furtheritissuggestedthat

raisingtheawarenessofgovernmentandnon-governmentorganisationsisneededtocomplywith

minimumlegalrequirementsforahealthyandsafeworkenvironmentandtoensurethattheyare

notexposingtheirstafftounnecessaryandavoidablerisk.

Thisresearchistimelygiventhecontemporaryworldwideexamplesofinjuriesandlossoflifetoaid

andsecuritysectorworkersandit’srelevancetotheimprovementoforganisationalsupport

particularlyinthekeyareaofhumanresourcemanagement(HRM).Theincreasedlevelsofviolence

againstaidworkershavepromptedorganisationstoaddressmoretheissuesofstaffsecurityand

organisationalresponsibilityasvitalpolicyandoperationalsuccessfactors.Yetlittleresearchhas

focussedmoreclearlyontheroleofHRMinthisvexedareaofthesupportforstaffinthediscussion

onsecuritymanagement.Therefore,thisresearchalsoprovidesmuchneededdebatetochallenge

aidandsecuritysectororganisations,policymakersandstakeholders’responsestoanoften

overlookedorthedown-gradedissueoforganisationalsupport.Thisisparticularlyappositeinthe

areaofHRMforindividualemployeesworkinginareasofthreattohumanlifeoremployees

sustainingmajorinjurywhilstperformingthedutiesrequiredofthembytheirorganisation.


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Itisaxiomaticthathumanitarianaidandsecuritysectorworkispredominantlyininsecure

environmentswhichalsosubjectemployeestomanythreatsandrisks.Thetwoexamplesbelow

highlightthecomplexarrayofsituationsthataidandsecuritysectoremployeesfindthemselves

confrontedwith:

1.KidnappinginDarfur,NorthSudan:

DarfurinWesternSudanremainsonetheworld’sworsthumanitariancriseswithatotalof4.7

millionpeopleaffectedbytheon-goingconflict.Manyofthesepeoplerelyonaidprovidedbylocal

andinternationalorganisations.However,itisbecomingincreasinglydifficultforthemtooperate.

Overthepastfewyears,violencetowardsaidworkershasseenamarkedincreasewith

humanitarianstaffbecomingthetargetsofdirectattacks.Compoundbreak-ins,car-jackingand

robberieshavebecomecommonplace,perhapsanevenmoreworryingtrendthoughistherecent

increaseinthenumberofreliefworkerskidnappedandabducted.

AccordingtoUNstatistics,betweenJanuaryandAugust2009,astaggering50stafffromUNoraid

organisationswerereportedlykidnappedorabductedinDarfur.Nationalstaffisparticularly

vulnerabletoattackasSudaneseaidworkersrepresentthevastmajorityofreliefworkersinDarfur

andareusuallyonthefrontline.However,recentdevelopmentshaveshownthatforeignnationals

areincreasinglyatrisk-kidnappershaveseizedsixgroupsofforeignersinDarfursinceJune2010,a

trendthatwasvirtuallyunheardofbefore.

2.InsecurityinPorte-au-Prince,Haiti

InHaiti,afterthedevastatingearthquakeonJanuary12th2010,insecurityandthecomplete

breakdownoflawandorderinthemaincityPort-au-Princehamperedrescueefforts.TheUNand

militaryrecommended,andinsomecasesenforcedcurfewsandrestrictedzonesincertainareasof

thecityformainlypersonalsafetyreasons.Fearshavearisenoveradangerouspowervacuuminthe

aftermathofthedisaster.Withfoodandmedicalsuppliesdelayed,therewerewidespreadreportsof

mountingdesperationandlooting.FootagefromtheUSbroadcasterCBSshowedyoungmen

roamingthestreetsofPort-au-Princearmedwithmachetesandhuntingforfood.


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"Ifearwe'reallawarethatthesituationisgettingmoretenseasthepoorestpeoplewhoneedso

mucharewaitingfordeliveries,"saidDavidWimhurst,spokesmanfortheBrazilian-ledUN

peacekeepingmission."Theywantustoprovidethemwithhelp,whichis,ofcourse,whatwewant

todo,"hesaid.ButpeopleseeUNvehiclespatrollingthestreetstomaintaincalmandnotdelivering

aid,and"they'reslowlygettingmoreangryandimpatient".

ElizabethByrs,theUNhumanitarianspokeswoman,said:"Peoplewhohavenotbeeneatingor

drinkingforalmost50hoursandarealreadyinaverypoorsituation,iftheyseeatruckwith

something...oriftheyseeasupermarketwhichhascollapsed,theyjustrushtogetsomethingto

eat."

Thecountry's800-strongpoliceforce"arenotvisibleatall",saidWimhurst,andaidconvoyshave

beenwarnedtotravelonlywithsecurityescorts.Thesituationisexacerbatedbymorethan4,500

criminalswhofledfromtwoprisonsdestroyedinthecity.

Pressrelease15Jan2010byEstherAddleandJohnVidal,guardian.co.uk.

Further,statisticsshowthatnearlyonethirdofdeathsofhumanitarianaidworkersoccurinthefirst

threemonthsofdutyimplyingthathumanitarianandsecurityworkersaremoreatriskthanever

before(Sjeik,2000;Rowley&Burnham,2005;Stoddard,Harmer&Haver,2006;Buchanan&

Muggah,2005).Additionally,fromanorganizationalperspective,itissuggestedthatasamatterof

goodmanagementpracticeorganisationsshouldhavepoliciesandpracticesthatclearlystatewhat

happensduringandaftersuchcriticalincidents.Howanorganisationhandlessensitiveinformation

andprotectsthepeopleinvolvedisalsoimportant.Concurrently,anycriticalincidentreported

locallyissusceptibletoglobalmediaattention,sohowanincidentisdealtwithiscrucialnotonlyfor

thestaffmemberandteamonsite,butalsofortheorganisation’sreputation.Further,itisalso

relevanttothesafetyofotherNGOsintheregionandhighlightsthatinformationaboutsecurity

incidentsneedstobesharedappropriately.

Indeed,VanBrabant(2001)promptedfurtherdebatebycallingfora‘needtochange’ashebelieved

aidorganisationswerenotdoingenoughtostrengthentheirsecuritymanagementsystems.His

researcharguedthatsomeorganisationsclaimtheydon’tneedtochangetheirsystems,statingfor

examplethefollowing:


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…‘no-onehasdied’,‘riskisanunavoidablepartofourwork’and‘wehavebeenmanagingriskfor

decadeswithexistingtoolsandcompetences,thereisnoneedforadditionalornewmeasures’

(p10).

Extantevidenceseemstoprovideacontraryviewpointwhichplacesmorefocusonorganisational

culpabilityandthenecessityforappropriatemanagementactiontomitigateemployeeinjuriesand

possiblefatalitieswhilstalsolearningfrompastactionsandpreviousorganisationalmistakes.

TheroleofHumanResourceManagement

Inmanyways,theHRMfunctioninorganisationsisanareawheresecuritymanagementand

legislationultimatelyconverge.Theextenttowhichorganisationsseestaffascentraltotheirmission

isoftenreflectedinthepoliciesandpracticesthatrelatetostaffwelfare(O’Sullivan,2010;Fenwick,

2005).Inalmosteveryjurisdictiontheorganisationhasadutyofcaretowardsitsstaffandis

expectedtomitigatetherisksstaffface.Indeeditcouldbearguedthatthedutyofcaretowardsstaff

istheHRMdepartment’sreasonforbeing.Ifthesafetyofastaffmemberhasbeencompromised,

employmentlegislationcanprovidearobustframeworkforinvestigationandtoughsanctionsif

culpabilityisproven.Forthisreason,itisvitalthathumanresourceprofessionalsinhumanitarianaid

andsecuritysectorworkenvironmentsareinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofrisk

managementstrategiesandpractices.

Itisoftenarguedthatpre-deploymentpreparationincludingsecuritytrainingandinformationon

personalsecuritygoalongwaytowardskeepingstaffsafe,fitandhealthyaswellasmeetingthe

needsofboththeemployeeandemployerinmaintainingtheimportantpsychologicalcontract

(Guest,1997;1996;GuestandConway,2000;2001).However,pre-departuretrainingissometimes

overlooked,notaffordedapriorityorgivenscantattentionbyhumanitarianandsecuritysector

organisations.Nevertheless,giventheinsecurenatureoftheenvironmentemployeesareoftensent

todangerousregionswhereseriousincidentscananddohappen.Staffcanfindthemselvesinvery

difficultsituationsormaybeinvolvedincriticalincidentssuchasarobbery,violentattack,kidnap,

serioussicknessorinjury,andintheextreme,potentiallossoflife(Stoddard,Harmer&DiDomencio,

2009).


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Fromanorganizationalperspective,thisresearchhasalreadyhighlightedsalientissueslinkedtothe

notionofduty-of-careofemployersinvolvingculpabilityandthenotionofvicariousliabilityonthe

partoforganisations.Theseissuesfocusontheresponsibility(inlaw)ofemployerstoemployees

andbydefinition,requireanorganizationalresponsetothewholeissueofriskmanagementwhen

managinghumanitarianandsecuritysectoremployees.

However,anydiscussionofpoliciesandpracticestomanagestaffshouldbeprefacedbyan

organizationalunderstandingoftheroleandkeyfunctionsperformedbyHRMincontext.A

resource-basedapproachtoHRM(Barney,1991,Wrightetal,2001;Lepak&Snell,2002;Darby,

2000)focusesonregardingpeopleasaresourcetobeinvestedin,asopposedtoviewingpeopleasa

commodityandacosttotheorganization.Figure1below,identifiesthosekeyfunctionswithinthe

HRMcycle,whichplayamajorroleinmanaginghumanresourcesinalltypesoforganizations.The

utilityofthemodelistwofoldandprovidesaframeworkwhichidentifiesthekeyHRMfunctionsof

resourcing,development,rewardandrelations,allgearedtothebroadergoaloforganisational

performance.Italsohighlightsthenecessityfortheintegrationofkeyfunctionstoworktogetherfor

HRMtobesuccessful.

Figure1:

THE HUMAN RESOURCE CYCLE

Selection Performance Appraisal

Training

Rewards


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(AdaptedfromFormburnetal.,1984)

However,anydiscussionofthefunctionalnatureofHRMneedstobeviewedwithintheoverall

perspectiveofstrategicmanagement,includingtheexternalenvironmentofanorganisationwhichis

illustratedinFigure2below.

Figure2:TheExternalEnvironmentandHRM(Darby,2006)

Aspreviouslyalludedto,thereisacrucialinterplaybetweenthekeyvariableswhenmanaging

strategically.Budhwar(2000)pointsoutthatoneofthecentralfeaturesofthedebateonHRMhas

beentheimportanceplacedonintegratingHRMwiththeserviceorbusinesscorporatestrategy,

concentratingonhowandwhenHRissues(i.e.riskandsecuritymanagement)areconsideredinthe

formulationofcorporatestrategy(Akingbola,2006).

Suchhumanresourcesareseentohaveastrategicimportancetosupportthecreationof

competitiveadvantagesfororgansationsinthepublic,privateandvoluntarysectors(Forbrunetal,

1984;Miles&Snow,1984).Further,HRMseekstodevelopaninternalfitamonghumanresources

functionalareasandanexternalfitbetweenHRMpoliciesandpracticeswiththeorganisation’s

strategy.(Beeretal1984,Schuler&Jackson,2005;SchulerandRogovsky,1998).

What are the characteristics of the organisation and how are they changing?

What is the strategy and does it ‘fit’ the environment and the organisation?

What are the people attitude/skill gaps?How capable are managers?How appropriate is current/past management style?What is the culture?

Are the necessary systems in place to make the organisation work?- Operational- People maintenance- Reward systems- Communications

What is the existing structure?Spans of control, levels of hierarchy, accountability, degrees of specialisation.Does the structure work?

ENVIRONMENT

STRATEGY

PEOPLE SYSTEMS STRUCTURE


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Figure3belowbuildingonFigures1and2,highlightsthatimportantlinkbetweenstrategicand

functionalHRM.AfurtherpointtoaddhereisthemovementofHRMfromperforminga

transactionaltoatransformationalrole.Thissuggestsamajorconceptualstepinthinkingaboutthe

purposeofHRM.Traditionally,ithasbeenseentoperformmoretransactionalroles,somewould

evenposit,areactiveadministrativeroleinorganisations(Legge,2005).ThemovementofHRMtoa

moretransformationalrolenecessitatesHRMbeingatthecentreofstrategicdecisionmakingand

championingthedevelopmentofonethekeyresourcesnamely,peopleintheorganisation.

Figure3:

Darby(2006)

Focussingmorespecificallyonsecuritysectormanagementandhumanitarianaidwork,VanBrabant

(2001)suggeststheHRMhasaveryimportantroletoplayinensuringsafetyandsecuritystandards

intheorganisation,andneedstobeactivelyinvolvedanddrawattentiontotheevolvinglegal

requirementsofemployersandtolegislationrelevanttonationalstaff.Furthermore,VanBrabant

alongwithothercommentators(PeopleinAid,2003,2007;RedCrossFinland,2003)stressesthe

importanceofanintegratedapproachtowardsgoodsecuritymanagement.Theyarguethat

The Human Resource Cycle and ‘Fit’with Organisational Strategy

Economic force Political forceCultural force

(Situational Context)

Selection promotion Performance Appraisal

Rewards

DevelopmentStructure

Mission

Strategy

TRANSFORMATIONAL

TRANSACTIONAL


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organisationsshouldestablishaformalgroupattheHQandfieldlevelwitharemitofstrengthening

securitymanagementbyensuring:

• Goodandwell-understoodsecurityprocedurescoupledwithclearandfollowedthrough

disciplinaryproceduresshouldtheybebreached

• Theattitudestosecurityareassessedintherecruitmentprocessaswellasthecompetences

forthoseresponsibleforsecurity

• Pre-deploymentinductionsandbriefingsincludecontextualsecurityinformationandtraining

andpersonalbehavioursandconductexpectedfromstaff

• Debriefingofstaffontheirreturnfromassignmentinparticularapsychologicaldebrieffor

thoseexposedtoacriticalincident

• Thegeneralculturetowardsriskmanagementisahealthyandcautiousoneinthe

organisation.

• Goodinsurancepoliciesareinplaceincludingmedicalevacuation.

However,previousresearchdoesnotclearlyidentifythenecessityforintegrationofallthekey

functionsinHRM.Neitherdoesitexplainhowstaffshouldbetrainedbeforeandduringa

deployment.Giventhesituationalcontextofaidandsecuritysectorwork,securitytrainingis

essentialandstaffneedstounderstandhowtobehaveandprotectthemselveswhilstworkingin

insecureenvironments.HRMcouldplayavitalrolewiththedevelopmentofgoodcontextual

briefingsandtrainingpackages.Forexample,TheRedCrossFinland(2003)publishedguidelineson

securitymanagementforitsownfederationandnationalsocieties.ItsuggestskeyHRM-related

factorsorganisationsshouldconsiderorbeawareofinordertostrengthenitssecuritymanagement,

whicharebrieflysummarisedbelow:

• Awrittencommitmenttothewell-beingofpersonnel

• Theimportanceofclarifyingtheresponsibilityofpeopleinmanagement,human

resourcesandoperations

• Donorsmayrequiresafetyandsecuritypoliciesforstaff

• Insurancecompaniesinsistingongoodandwell-implementedsafetyandsecuritypolicies

• Toavoidlegalproblems,organisationsmustbeabletoprovethattheprotectionofits

staffisofthehighestpriority.(2003,p51).


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BuildingontheworkofVanBrabantandotherstheRedCrossFinlandlistbasicprinciplesthatan

organisation’ssecuritymanagementpracticeshouldinclude:

• Astatementonthebasicpositionoftheorganisationtowardsnationallaws,localculture

andcustoms

• Astatementofresponsibilitiesandfreedomsofindividualstaffmembersandadherence

tothepersonalcodeofbehaviour

• Acommitmenttoprovideinsurancecover

TheRedCrossFinlandalsoprovidesfurthersupportfortheclaimthatanHRMdepartmenthasa

veryimportantroletoplayinensuringsafetyandsecuritystandardsinorganisationsandneedsto

beactivelyinvolved.Inparticular,itpointstotheneedforclarityregardingauthorityand

responsibility,linesofcommunicationanddecision-makingandthathumanresourceissuesshould

beanintegralpartofallHRMstrategies,policiesandpracticeswhichultimatelyaffectthesuccessof

thewholeoperation.Further,theRedCrossFinlandbelievesitisimportanttodevelopasafetyand

securitypolicyinordertoclarifythedecision-makingprocessaspartofgoodhumanresource

managementpractice.

TheEmploymentCycle

Indevelopingthisdiscussionitisclearthereisanecessitytomoveonfromtheorytopracticeand

assesswaystosupportorganisationstoimplementmoreformalpracticestosustainrisk

managementofaidandsecuritysectoremployees.TheemploymentcycleinFigure4belowprovides

ausefulmodelforHRMpractitionerswhenconsideringthedifferentareasthatareaffectedbyor

affectsecuritymanagementbothfornationalandinternationalstaff.Itisarguedinthisresearchthat

organisationsshouldseriouslyconsidertheimpactofeachstageonHRMpolicyandpractice.At

eachphaseofthecycle,decisionsaremadeanditisnecessarytounderstandhowsecurity

managementdecisionsareintegratedandthentoprovidefurthersupporttomanageeachstage.To

emphasizeinmoredetailthenecessityofidentifyingthelinkagebetweenpeopleandsecurity

managementthefollowingkeystagesarehighlightedbelow:


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Figure4:EmploymentCycle&Security

(Williamson,2012)

Preparationstage

Forexample,hazardousenvironmentsrequirestaffwithspecificskillsandexperience;thereforean

organisationshouldneverunderestimatetheimportanceoftherecruitmentandselectionprocess

andtherisksassociatedwithhiringthewrongperson.Placingthewrongpersoninanyoverseas

environmentcanbeverycostly,unproductiveandultimatelydangerous.Apartfromtheamountof

timespentonrecruitmentandselection,whichhasbeenputatbetweenthreeandfivetimesan

employee’sannualsalary,staffarelikelytobeunhappyandunderperform,whichwillhaveadirect

impactonprogrammeimplementation(andthereforeawasteofdonors’money),theirmanager’s

time,teammoraleandeventhreatensecurity.

Preparingastaffmemberfortheirassignmentitcouldbearguedisthesinglemostimportantthing

anorganisationcando.Givenpreviousstatedstatisticsshowthatnearlyone-thirdofdeathsof

humanitarianworkersoccurinthefirstthreemonthsofduty(Sjeik,2000),itissurelyunreasonable


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andbadmanagementpracticetosendastaffmembertoaconflictzonewithoutsubstantial

preparation.Manyorganisationsgivebriefingsontheroleandsomegivegeneralsecuritytraining;

someevengivespecificcontextualtraininginthefield.However,theclearmessagefrom

governmentandnon-governmentagenciesandsecurityspecialistsalikeisthattheyshouldbedoing

more.Iforganisationsaresendingpeopleonassignmentswithoutfullyunderstandingthepre-

deploymentstageoftheemploymentcyclethenitislikelythatthesepeople,andtheorganisationas

awhole,areill-preparedleavinganill-equippedstaffmembertomakedecisionsthatcould

jeopardizepersonalsecurity(andthesecurityofothers)andisanabdicationofresponsibilityand

dutyofcareonthepartofanorganization.

Duringthepre-deploymentperiod,itissuggestedgeneralinformationshouldalwaysbegivento

staffonpersonalconduct,staffrightsandresponsibilities,theorganisation’svaluesandmandate,

personalobjectivesandreportinglinesofcommunication.Researchhasidentifiedtwoareasin

particularwarrantmoreattention:personalsecurityawarenessandstress.Staffmustbeawareof

theriskstotheirownpersonalsecurity.Theyshouldknowwhatisexpectedofthemduringand

outsidenormalworkinghoursandthattheyshouldbehaveaccordingly.Theyshouldfully

understandthecontextinwhichtheyareworking(howthesocietyaroundthemfunctionsand

communicates),andhowtheirownbehaviourcanaffecttheirvulnerability.Staffshouldalsobe

awareofhowstressaffectstheirpersonalbehaviour–peoplecanoftenreleasestressindamaging

ways,suchasexcessivedrinkingandpromiscuity.Itissuggestedthatorganisationsmustconsistently

enforcesanctionsagainststaffthatputthemselvesandothersatrisk.

In-Poststage

IthasbeenarguedthattherearemanyissuesthatHRMcouldandshouldbeinvolvedwithinrisk

managementatboththestrategicmanagementandoperationallevels.Forinstance,oncethestaff

memberhasbeenrecruitedthenthemanagementofriskdependsuponthesupportthathasbeen

putinplaceattheplanningstageoftheemploymentcycle,thepreparationofthestaffmember

beforedeploymentandthemanagementofstaff(andtheirdevelopment)whilstonassignmentand

finally,therepatriationofstaffontheirreturntoHQ.Inahumanitarianandsecuritysetting,ifone

ofthesestagesisweakandill-managed,itcouldmeanthedifferencebetweenasafe,healthyand


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productiveassignmentincontrasttoanunproductiveandstressfulonewheretheemployeecould

havesustainedaseriousinjurybeenburdenedwithill-healthorevenfacedpossibledeath.

Figure5below,basedonDarby’s(2000)research,highlightstheimportancetoorganisationsand

employeesalikeoftheutilisationofaconceptualExpatriate-CycleModel.Itidentifiesatypologyof

supportthatoffersanheuristicmodelforpractitionersandplacesemphasisonthecrucialstages

(bothfromanorganisationalandindividualperspective)thatneedtobeconsideredtosupportthe

overallprocessofmanagingthecycleofworkundertakenbyhumanitarianaidandsecuritysector

employees.Thisinvolvesidentifyingthecrucialstagesofpre-departure,post-arrivalandrepatriation

inpeopleandsecuritymanagement.

Figure5:Individual&OrganisationalPerspectivesintheExpatriation-Cycle

EXPATRIATION-CYLCE MODELINDIVIDUAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Pre- departurestage

RepatriationStage

Post- arrivalStage

(B) POST- ARRIVAL STAGE• Communication• Contact links• Assignment management• Mentoring• Appraisal

(C) REPATRIATION STAGE• Handover procedures• Debriefing• Evaluation• Organisational learning • Satisfaction with process

(B) POST- ARRIVAL STAGE• Communication with HQ• Monitoring links• Communication with host nationals• Appraisal

(A) PRE-DEPARTURE STAGE• Technical expertise• Cross-cultural briefings• Family support details• Language training• Success Criteria• Motivation/Aspiration – Individual needs• Perceptions of value of overseas experience• Sociographic information• Previous assignment experience• Compensation and benefits

(A) PRE-DEPARTURE STAGE• Stated Objectives• Org. needs for expat employees• Strategic needs for expatriation• Operational support• Role definition/job description• Selection procedures• Preparation and language training • Information giving

(C) REPATRIATION STAGE• Satisfaction with experience• Family readjustment• De - briefing• Career management• Re-entry experiences

ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVE

Socio- Cultural Adjustment

Org. characteristics Ind. characteristics

Cross-Cultural.Training Cultural and behavioural skills

Organisational support Nature and extent interaction withhost nationals

Participation in social life

Satisfaction with living conditions

Psychological Adjustment

Org. Characteristics Ind characteristics

Value orientation Feelings of satisfaction/acceptance

Organisational support Health problems, i.e. stress

Psychological well-being

Work Adjustment

Org. characteristics Ind. characteristics

Org’s international structure Positive work attitudes

Strategic planning Completion of full duration of assignment

Succession planning Technical and managerial competence

Organisational support Organisational commitment

AdaptedfromDarby(2000)

Theresearchalsoshowedthattherewasaneedtoacknowledgethedualityofthewholeassignment

processinvolvingbothindividualandorganisationalexperiencesoftheassignmentprocess–not

alwaysnecessarilyprovidingthesameconclusions.Further,italsoprovidedameansofjuxtaposing

theexperienceoforganisationalsupportofassigneeswiththeirorganisation’sprovisionthroughout


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thewholecycleoftheassignment.Thissignificantlyaddressesthewholeprocessfromacyclical

ratherthanalinearperspectivetoavoid,amongstotherthings,afragmentationoftheprocess.The

keypsychological,socio-culturalandworkadjustmentfactorsalsoidentifytheimportanceoffitin

reducingconflictandenhancingeffectivenessinthewholeprocessoftheassignment.Finally,the

modelhelpstoidentifythewiderimplicationsoftheprocesssupportinghumanitarianaidand

securitysectoremployeesbyenlargingthefocustoincorporatecontextandprocessissuesinHRM

supportforaidandsecuritysectoremployees.

Methodology

Researchdesign

Inadditiontoreviewingextantresearchandrelevantliterature,thisstudyadoptsanexploratory

qualitativeapproachthatcentresonrelevantcasestudyorganisationsandappropriatepersonnelto

highlightkeyissuesandprovidemoreinformationinthismuchneededdevelopingareaofresearch.

Thisresearchtopiciswellsuitedtoacasestudyapproachforgatheringprimarydatabecausethe

conceptoforganisationresponsibilityanddutyofcareofemployeesindangerousenvironmentsis

oftensubjectivelygroundedandlackingcomparativeempiricaldatatoinformfurtherusefuldebate

andinfluencebestpracticewhilstalsoextendingexistingtheory(Yin,2003;Denzin&Lincoln,2000;

Eisenhardt&Graebner,2007).Giventhespecificcontextitwasfeltthatexploratoryqualitative

researchwasjustifiedtosupporttheclearerexplanationofhowpeopleexperienceaphenomenon,

whichcannotbeeasilyobservedotherwise(Creswell,2008;Carsonetal.,2001).

Thecasestudyorganisationswerechosentoprovideaneclecticmixfromthepublicandvoluntary

sectors,withvariousorganisationalsizes,differentcorporategovernance,allwithHRdepartments

andsecurityunits;allworkingwithininternationalandmulticulturalenvironmentsandoperatingin

manydangerousregionsintheworldforover10years.

Table1:ProfileofCaseStudyOrganisations

OrgAINGO OrgBINGO OrgCGOVTORG.


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Vision&Mission Peopletogethercan

createafairworld,free

ofpovertyand

injustice.

Aworldofhope,

tolerance,andsocial

justice,wherepoverty

hasbeenovercomeand

peopleliveindignity

andsecurity.The

missionistoserve

individualsandfamilies

inthepoorest

communitiesinthe

world.Drawingstrength

fromglobaldiversity,

resourcesand

experience,topromote

innovativesolutionsand

areadvocatesforglobal

responsibility.

Defendingthecountry

anditsinterests.

Strengthening

internationalpeaceand

stability.

OrgStructure&

HumanResources

Confederationof12

Org.officesaroundthe

world

Federationof12

members

GovernmentMinisterof

Defenceresponsiblefor

theformulationand

conductofDefence

Policy.

No.ofEmployees 4634 12000 160,000

ModeofEntry

(Primarily

Autonomous

Implementersor

Primarily

Partnership

Oriented)

Partnership-Oriented.

Aspartofafederation

theyapproachtheir

developmentprojects

bypartneringwith

organisationsincluding

INGOsworldwide.

Autonomous

implementers.Partofa

federation.Theyplace

expatsinleadership

positionsincountry

offices.Sometimeswork

withpartners

Autonomous

implementers.Linked

withothergovernment

departmentsand

overallgovt.strategy.

Sometimesworkwithin

partnershipwithother


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govt.agenciesand

INGOs.

Program

Orientation

(PrimarilyService-

deliveryor

PrimarilyAdvocacy

–based)

Mixofservicedelivery

andadvocacy-based.

Supervisedevelopment

projectsmanyofwhich

involvecomponentof

empowermentand

advocacy.

Servicedelivery.

Developmentprojects

provideservicesand

commodities.

Mixofservicedelivery

andadvocacy-based.

TypeofProjects Humanitarian

development

RealignmentofPeople,

deliverableskills,

managingchange

Aid&Earthquake

response,

Long-term

development

programmes

Regionalroleoverseas

inthemanagementof6

countriesinAsiahigh

riskenvironments

Post-conflict

reconstruction

EducationSupport

Team

CivilServantsdeploying

insupportofmilitary

supportoperations

programmeforcivilians

workingindefenceand

security

Recruitment,preparing

fordeployment,return,

supportforcivilian

subject-matterexperts

beingdeployed.

Countriesof

Operation–

Afghanistan,Yemen,

Pakistan,Haiti,Niger

Yemen,Tunisia,Egypt,

Somalia,Nepal

Afghanistan,Iraq,

Ethiopia,


18

(relevant

examples)

Additionally,apurposivesampleofseniorpersonnelfromtherangeofdifferentinternationaland

governmentcasestudyhumanitarianaidandsecurityorganisationswasinterviewed(Miles&

Huberman,1994).Theuseofacross-sectionofseniorpersonnelprovidedinsightsfromappropriate

staffwhoviewtheimportantissueoforganisationalsupportintheriskmanagementofemployees

deployedinhazardousenvironmentsfromoutsideaswellasinsidetheHRMfunction.This

supportedCreswell’s(2007)viewthatindividualsselectedfromcaseorganisationsarethose

engagedwiththecorephenomenon.

Theseniorpersonnelprovidedasuitablecross-checkofperceptionsandarichsourceofvaluable

insightsandinformationfrombothstrategicandoperationalstandpoints.Theseniorpersonnel

selectedfromdifferentorganisationalsettingsincludedthoseholdingacrosssectionofvariouskey

positionsinvolvingaSecretaryGeneral,anInternationalProgrammesDirector,RegionalDirectorsin

EastandCentralAfrica,theMiddleEast,EasternEuropeandAsia,anInternationalHRmanager,a

DirectorofSecurity,SecurityAdvisorsandaTrainingandDevelopmentmanagerforsupport

operations.Theiryearsofexperiencerangedfrom2to20yearsinhumanitarianaidandsecurity

sectorwork.Theirrangeofinvolvementinmajorshortandlongtermprojectsincluded:post-conflict

reconstruction,supportingciviliansubject-matterexperts,humanitarianandearthquakeresponse

andlong-termdevelopmentprogrammesinanumberofregionsoftheworldmanyofwhicharestill

consideredveryhazardousenvironments(e.g.Afghanistan,Iraq,Pakistan,Somalia).

Thisresearchusedin-depthsemi-structuredinterviewswhichallowedtheresearcherstoexplorea

fullrangeoffactorstoemerge.Semi-structuredinterviewswithexpertrespondentswere

undertakenaspartofawiderresearchenquiryintothequestionoftheroleofHRMinthedutyof

careprovidedbyorganisationsintheriskmanagementofemployees.Drawingonprevious

research,asemi-structuredquestionnaireframeworkwasdevelopedwhichguidedinterviewsin

eachofthecasestudyorganisationsfocussingonthefollowingkeythemesdrawnfromextant

researchandrelevantliterature:


19

• RiskManagementandtheresponsibilityoforganisations(Stoddard,Harmer&Haver,2006;

Stoddard&Harmer,2010,Stoddard,Harmer&DiDomenico,2009);

• TheRoleofHRMandhowtoimprovetheroleinRiskManagement(Williamson,2010;

Akingbola,2006;Darby,2000;O’Sullivan,2010;GuestandConway,2000;2001;Barney,

1991,Wrightetal,1994;Lepak&Snell,1999,2002);

• DutyofCareandthelegalresponsibilitiesoforganisations(Sjeik,2000;Rowley,2005;

Stoddard,Harmer&Haver,2006;Buchanan&Muggah,2005);

• Transferofknowledgeinvolvinglessonslearnt(Gilbert,Morabio,&Stohr,2010;Evans,Pucik

&Barsoux,2002;Lazarova&Cerdin,2007);

• Futuretrendsandimplications(VanBrabant,2001;Stoddard&Harmer,2010;PeopleinAid,

2008,2007;RedCrossFinland,2003;Parry&Keliher,2009;Ulrich&Brookbank,2005).

Datacollectionandanalysis

Datacollectionwasgatheredfrommultiplesourcestoprovidecorroborativeevidenceonthekey

themes.Thisincludedprimarydatafromarangeofparticipantsandcasestudyorganisationsbut

alsosecondarydataincludingreviewsoforganisation’swebsites,annualreportsandvariousrelevant

documentaryevidencedistributedbytheparticipatingorganisations.Withregardtotheprimary

data,theinterviewprotocolwaspilottestedandsubsequentlyrefinedtoimproveclarity.Thesemi-

structuredinterviewswereconductedonaone-to-onebasisandaveraged45minutesinduration.

Oncompletionoftherecordedinterviewsreflectivenotesweremadetorecordfeedbackissuesand

observationsofrespondents.Finally,interviewsweretranscribedverbatimafterrecording.Datawas

collectedoverthecourseof3months.

Thedataanalysisprocesswasprimarilyinductive(Collis&Hussey,2009;Neuman,2006)and

supportedbyatheoreticalframeworktoidentifythemainvariables,components,themesand

relationshipsbetweenthem(Yin,2003;Miles&Huberman,1994).Withtheaidoftemplateanalysis

(King,2004)thefirststepwasbreakingthedataintomeaningfulunitsofinformationwhichwasthen

coded.Thenunitswerecombinedintolargercategories.Thethirdstepwascombiningcategories

intotopics.Nexttheresearchersmettodiscusscontent-analysisofthetranscriptsandtocompare


20

andcontrasttheirinitialfindings.Emergingcategorieswerethencombinedtohighlightacommon

setofbroadthemesforevaluation,criticalanalysisanddiscussion.

Findings

Toreiterate,theaimofthisresearchwastoundertakefromanorganisationalperspective,atimely

examinationoftheroleofHRMpracticesandprocessesintheorganisationalsupportofthe

managementofriskofemployeesdeployedtohazardousenvironmentsbyorganisationsinthe

humanitarianaidandsecuritysectors.Thisexploratoryresearchalsosorttoidentifycurrentand

emergingkeyissuesaswellasthebarrierstothesuccessoftheorganisationalsupportfor

employeesdeployedindangerousregionsoftheworld.

Asdescribedabove,theresearchdesigndrewonextantresearchandrelevantliterature,toidentify

anumberofkeyissuesinthisstudyareawhichwillbeusedtoactasaframeworktodevelopamore

thoroughanalysisoftheprimarydata.Thisincludedthefollowing:

RiskManagementandtheresponsibilityoforganisations:

Theanalysisrevealedthatthemainrisksfacedbycaseorganisationsfellintothreemaincategories.

First,crimewhichaccountedforabout50%ofincidents,involvingrobbery,burglary,armedrobbery,

theft,muggingsandrandomattackswithexamplescitedinAfghanistanandNepalinvolvingsuicide

attacks.Second,morepoliticalincidents,werecitedwhichincludedworkinginconflictsituations,

andhavingtomanageongoingconflicts.Thirdly,asmallerportionaroundwhatwastermed,

managementissues,generatedfromwithintheorganisationsinvolvingdisgruntledstaff,sacked

staff,thosefacingdisciplinaryproceduresandfraudinvestigationswhichwerealldeemedto

generateasecurityrisk.Insupportoftheliterature(Stoddard,Harmer&DiDomencio,2009),

evidencefromorganisationssuggestedlocalstaffwerethelargestnumberofvictimswhilstalthough

expatriateemployeeswerevulnerabletoshocks,tokidnapping,tocarjackinghowevernationalstaff

areinfargreaterdangerthanexpatriates.

Interestingly,thetwoNGOsofficiallyfollowedapolicyofnon-engagementwiththemilitary

suggestingcloserrelationshipsranthedangerofblurringhumanitarianaidandmilitaryactivities

andpotentiallycompromisingneutralitybutexceptionswereidentifiedwerethispolicywas


21

overlookedforexampleinSomalia,Pakistan,andKenya.Inrealityitappearsthatinformation

exchangeinthehumanitarianaidandsecurityarenadoestakeplaceandisoftenformallydone

throughtheUN.Thiswassupportedbythefollowingquote:

“Yes,thereisinformationexchangeandformalstuffthroughtheUN.BecauseIthinkononehandit

needstohappenandit’sgood.Ontheotherhand,it’snarrowingthehumanitarianspaceandtheaid

workersbecomeassociatedwiththeArmy…..itsquitedifficultanywayandI’mthinkingofYemen

wereweweretargetedasaBritishNGO…”

Onamoreethicalnote,itwassuggestedthattherehadbeenanerosionoftheHumanitarian

PrinciplesasaresultoftheproliferationofmanyadditionalNGOsand:

“…winningheartsandmindswhichmakeitdifficulttodifferentiateaidworkersfrombelligerents

whohaveothermotivations.Maybetheerosionofhumanitarianprinciplesasaresultofthe

proliferationofmanyadditionalNGOsthatmaybehaven’tembracedsuchprinciplesislessprincipled

thansomeNGOs.”

Intermsofmitigatingrisks,theissueofsecuritywasprofessedtobeonthetopoftheagendainall

theorganisationsresearched.Structurally,atboththeseniormanagementlevelandinoperationsat

regionallevels,allorganisationshadsecurityadvisorssupportedbypoliciesandpractices.These

involvedanapproachcoveringasecuritymanagementframeworkincludingcontextanalysis,risk

andthreatanalysis,linkedwithstrategiesincludingthecommonthreeofacceptance,protectionand

deterrence,linkingupwiththeworkonthe‘tri-partitemodel’byVanBrabant(2000).Fromthe

governmentcasestudyorganisation,18rolestomitigateriskwereidentified,acrossarange

including,adedicatedsafetyteam,policyadvisors,defenceadvisors,civilsecretaries,financialand

commercialofficersandmilitarydefencepolice.Ofcourse,thenatureofoperationswhereverthe

organisationisworkingcreatesdifferentchallengingproblems,reflectedinthefollowingquote:

“….wearehavingtodevelopmilitaryasawholeincludingcivilservantstodealwiththecomplex

operationsandnotknowingwhatthenextonelookslike.AndIthinkthebiggestchallengethatwe

faceismakingsurethatweunderstandexactlywhatweareaskingofourpeopletogooutanddo.”


22

Understandingwhatisrequiredfromanorganisationalperspectiveandwhatperformanceis

essentialofstaffhighlightsthequestionofmeasurementanditslinkwiththemitigationofrisk.

Theredoesappeartobesomeconfusionastotheuseofclearmetricsforthemeasurementand

assessmentofrisks.

“…soIthinkthekeymanagementjudgementweneedtomakeiswhetherthesepeoplearelikethe

‘frogsinboilingwater’,notawareoftherisksofpeoplearepanickingorwhethertheyhaveavery

consciousandahighawarenessoftheriskentailedandcanbetrustedtounderstandwhatistherisk

ofpullingpeopleoutversusthebenefitofkeepingtheminthecountryanddoingourprogrammes.”

Indeed,whenhealthandsafetyandsecuritywerediscussed,thereseemedtobeaformalsplit

betweenthetwofunctions.

”..wedenyit’sbothHealth&SafetyandSecurityManagement.Wehavedifferentstaffmanagingthe

two….There’snotactuallyabusinesspartneronSecurityManagements’sideofHR….”

Furtheranalysisshowedthatmuchemphasiswasplacedontheresponsibilityoflinemanagersto

ensurethattheirstaffareabidingbyhealthandsafetyarulesandsecuritymanagementpolicies.

TheRoleofHRMandhowtoimprovetheroleinRiskManagement

Theanalysisrevealedthatintwooutofthethreecasestudiesorganisationsstructuralrelationships

supportedHRMintegration.Specifically,thisincludedHRMrepresentationatseniorlevelandoftena

directreportingrelationshipwiththeCEOandseniordirectorswhilstalsoseeingdevolutionofHR

responsibilitytolinemanagement.InoneNGOthiswasevidencedbyastructurethatincludedHRM

managersinallofthe7regionsitoperatedinwithsupportfromthecentretotranslatestrategyinto

operationalplans.Thisfindingwassupportedbycommentsfromseniorpersonnelincluding:

“HRisthegluethatholdsallthepiecestogether.”

“It’sastrategicrole.Ithinkanadministrativeroleiswhenyouevacuatepeople,theysignthe

contractanddothelogistics….IthinkinthisparticularcaselikeinYemenorinPakistanorin

PalestineinGazathey(HR)playthestrategicroleinaskingtherightquestionsandchallenging


23

managerswhoaretryingtodomoresortof‘yesletsgo’…Sotheyaresortofchecksandbalance

managers.”

“IseeHRisanimportantandstrategicfunction.It’sabusinesspartnerfunction.It’snotsortof

personnelmanagementandforexample,theHRmanagerisinmyteamandisanimportantregional

managementteammember.”

However,inthegovernmentorganisation,whathastranspiredoverarelativelyshorttimeisasplit

betweentheSafetyandSecurityTeamstillincentralmilitaryheadquarterspositionedawayfromthe

maincity,whilsttherestofHRsiderunfromtheinmaingovernmentbuildinginthecapital.

InrelationtoFigure1(Formburn,etal.,1984),evidencehighlightedtheimportancegivenby

organisationstotheintegrationofthekeyfunctionsintheHRMrole.However,fragmentationstill

seemedtooccurandoperationallytherewasmixedreactionstooverallmanagementoftheHRM

cycle:

“IthinkitisintegratedbutIthinkitcouldbeintegratedmoreeffectivelyanditcomesdowntothe

factweareananomaly,butitdoesn’texcusethefactthatwecouldimproveinsomeareas,butit

involvesbuy-infromeverybody….”

“Wheredoesitbreakdown?Onselection–becauseifwearehavingtobringpeoplebackfrom

theatrebecausetheyarenothappyornotsettled,weareputtingeverybodyunderpressure,

creatingextratensionandleavinggapsintheatre.”

Thecommentsonrecruitmentandselectionintheresearchfurtherhighlightsomepotential

weaknessesinorganisationalsupport:

“Mostoftherecruitmentthatwedoisremotelydoneandprobably70%-80%ofouroverseas

employeesareforeignersandhiredfromEurope,WesternEurope,EasterEuropeandAfrica.So

mostoftherecruitmentwillbedonebyphone.We’vemovedtothenewesttechnologybutitdoes

havesomeconstraintsintermsofidentificationofcandidatesandquestionsaboutriskmanagement

andpersonalsecurity.”


24

“Toomanyofthemarefocussedonthetraditionalcivilservicewayofinterviewingforcandidates

whicharemainlycompetencebased.However,weareaskingpeopletogoanddothisinavery

differentenvironmentandthereneedstobeflexibilitytobeabletoaskthequestions,‘Howarethey

goingtocopewithoutyou?’’Howdoyouthinkyouwillcopewithworking24hoursaday?’Andat

themomentalotofthesequestionsaren’tbeenaskedinsomeareasandIthinkthat’ssomething

weneedtomakesureisacrosstheboard.”

Observationsontraininganddevelopmentanditsrelationshipwithsecuritywerenotedwithone

NGOclearlyidentifyingthenecessityofsynergybetweenthetwo:

“…thisstrategyislookingmoreathowdowekeepsecuritycurrentinotherways,soforexamplewe

havelookedacrosstheorganisationatwhatothertrainingopportunitiestherearesowecanpiggy-

backsecurityontothem.”

Intermsofperformancemanagement,thegovernmentorganisationhadbyfarthemoststructured

anddeeplygrainedperformancemanagementsystem.Evenwhenemployeesweredeployedthey

wereappraised.AlthoughoneNGOalsoreportedithadathoroughperformancemanagement

systembutwasopentothevagariesoffacingdifferentemergenciesindifferentcountrieswhich

challengedthenotionof‘onesizefitsall’approachtoperformancemanagementinthissector:

“Wehaveasophisticatedlongandthoroughperformancemanagementprocessesandprocedures.

It’stheimplementationoftheprocessesthatisachallengebutitdoesworkinsomeofthecountry

offices.Giventheworldnowhasmorechallengesagainincountriesthatexperiencemore

emergenciesperyear–morepreciselyIthinkofChadbutoverallIthinkit’sanareawehave

significantlyimprovedoverthelastfewyears.”

DrawingontheheuristicmodelsdevelopedinFigures4(Williamson,2010)and5(Darby,2000),

relatingtotheimportanceofthecycleofexpatriationanddeployment,thedatashowedthat

organisationsintheorywerecognizantofacycleofdeploymentbutoperationallyco-ordinated

practicedidnotalwaysfollow.Thefollowingdataofferedinterestinginsightsintomanagingthe

wholecycleofdeploymentofemployees:

Pre-departure:


25

“Intermsofbriefingsandinduction,Ican’tsayyesblankly.It’syesandno….Ifyouaskmeabout

everyinternationalstaffgoingtoSomalia–dotheygetabriefing,yes.Ifyouaskmeaboutany

nationalstaffnewlyonboardinZambia–Iwouldsaynotnecessary.

“Thebriefingpackageissenttoallemployeespriortothedeployment,alongwithasecurity

guidelineforanydestinationandifthereareanyspecificsecurityinstructions,thosearesentaswell.

Allemployeesarerequiredtocompleteanon-linesecurityacademywebsitetest.AlthoughIcould

safelysaythattheon-linesecuritytrainingisprobablynotprovidedsystematicallyornotmonitored

systematically.

Post-arrival:

“In-countrybriefings–yes,assoonastheyarrive.Sothereisacorporatehealthandsafetypolicy

andthenthat’sobviouslyadaptedforlocallawandcontext.Everyemployeehasaperformance

appraisalwhilstin-county.”

However,thegovernmentcasestudyappearstohaveadoptedamorethoroughapproachtothis

stage:

“Yes,post-arrivalbriefings.Andtheyalsohaveareceptionstagingandonwardintegrationwhichid

somethingthemilitarydoandit’sa2or4daycoursedependingwhethertheyarearmedornotand

itgivesyoualltheuptodatebriefingsintheatreandwhat’sgoingonandthelatesthappenings.Also

thereisareminderofgettingonandoffahelicopterandthingslikethat.”

Repatriation:

Again,thegovernmentorganisationappearstohavethemorethoroughrepatriationprocessesin

place,forexample,asnotedintheevidence:

“Yeswehaveadebriefingsessionforthesupportoperationorganisationevery6months…andone

ofthethingswedoistogothroughquestionsabouttheHRCycle,‘Howwasyourselection?’Didyou

haveyourperformanceappraisalfilledin?’Didyouhaveanydramasgettinghomeforyourleave?’

Andtheyallgetmedalsandrecognitionreturnaswell.Sowedothatevery6months….”


26

YetthefollowingextractfromaninterviewwithstafffromanNGOhighlightsthecomplexityof

managingthe‘cycle’:

“Peopleinthisorganisationstayforquitealongtime,butnotalwaysandquiteoftenwehavesenior

staffatcountrylevelandregionallevelthatisnationalstaff,sothereisn’tthatsenseofrepatriation

attheend.”

However,therewereevidentcontradictionsattheoperationallevelandtheevidenceonthe

importanceoftheroleHRMplayedinsecuritymanagementwasmixed.Thedataportrayeda

picturewhereHRMwasseenasmoreofanadministrativeratherthanastrategicrole(Legge,2005)

intwooutofthethreecasestudies.Thiswassupportedbythefollowingcomments:

“Ithinkgenerallyinaninternationalorganisation,HRisconsideredasupportserviceandyouknow

whatit’slikewhenorganisationstakedecisionsaboutbudget,oftenthelastitemonthelistis

trainingforstaff…butinfactthesinglemostimportantresource,andeverybodysaysitbutnobody

actsonit,isthequalityofpeopleyougetintheorganisation.

Further,inrelationtosecurity:

“Aroundsafetyandsecurity,riskmanagementiswhollysupportedbytheSecurityUnitandthere

isn’taconnectionbetweenthetwo….Ithinkit’ssomethingthatwouldbenefitfromhavingamuch

closertiebetweensafetyandsecuritysideofthingsandriskmanagementassociatedwithHR.”

Moretellingly,seniormanagerssaid:

“Ifindparticularlythatwestillseemtobealittlereactive.Werememberaboutriskmanagement

whenseriousincidentshappen.Wethentendtoforgethowimportantthestrategyandmethodsare

andhowimportantitistomaintainandkeepthementalityofemployeesandmanagersthinking

aboutriskmanagement.“

“IthinkHRshouldactuallybeclearaboutwhatitmeansandwhatriskmanagementmeans….Risk

managementistypicallysetwithinthesecurityfieldandactuallyweneedtostartthinkingmore

abouthowriskmanagementistakenmuchmoreseriouslyacrosstheorganisation….Risk


27

managementneedstobecomeverymuchmoreanintegralpartofthewaythatweworkespecially

ininsecureenvironmentsbecauseit’sverymuchconnected.”

DutyofCareandthelegalresponsibilitiesoforganisations

Thenotionof‘dutyofcare’inextantresearchwasshowntobeanelementalissueinthisdiscussion.

Generally,itfundamentallyimpactsontheemploymentrelationshipandmoreparticularly,onthe

psychologicalcontractbetweenemployerandemployee(GuestandConway,2000,2001).Italso

raisesquestionsnotonlyabouttherightsofindividualsbutalsotheresponsibilitiesoforganisations

instatuteandnaturallaw.Increasinglyemploymentlawpermeatesthroughalltheinter-sections

betweenemployerandemployee.Mistakeswhetherbydesign,badmanagementorbyaccident,can

befinanciallycostlyandhasthepotentialtobadlydamagetheworldwidereputationofan

organisationfoundculpable.Inthisresearch,allthecasestudyorganisationswasshowntohave

strictsystemsoflegalsupportandcontrolstructurallyinplace.

“Thisorganisationisaconfederationandeachofthememberswhodeploystaffhasanultimate

legalresponsibilityforthesafetyandsecurityofthestaffandattheorganisation-widelevelwehave

aSafetyandSecurityUnitthatisresponsibleforpolicy,standardsandhasanultimateappeal

processifitfeelsaparticularmemberisn’tnoticingcertainsecuritythreats….”

“Wehave2full-timelawyersinourlegalteam.AstheSecurityAdvisorIpersonallyworkcloselywith

themonanumberofthingsthatcomeup….Wehavetalkedrecentlyaboutco-operate

manslaughter,forexample.

“InAugustlastyearwehadsomestaffkilledinanIDincidentandIknowallthetrusteesgota

briefingondutyofcarebecausetheyaretheoneswhomaybeimprisoned….”

Fromthegovernmentorganisationcasestudy,dutyofcarewascloselylinkedtothoroughrisk

assessments:

“Dutyofcarecomesinriskassessmentandindividualriskassessment.Theindividualgothrough

assessmentandsigntosaythattheyarehappywiththerisk.Thereisalsoanagreementthatifthere


28

areanydramaswewillgetthemhome.Theemployedcivilianswillbetreatedexactlylikethe

militarywhenitcomesmedicalsupportetc.”

However,oneconstantthemewashowdoorganisationsmanagethecomplexityofdifferentlaws

fromdifferentcountries:

“BeingaConfederationwehaveanissuearoundthelawintheUSthelawinAustralia,thelawin

FranceorCanada…soinsomecircumstanceswearefacingquiteabitofachallenge.”

AlltheresearchedorganisationshaveCodesofConductwhicharesignedbyeverynewstarter.

TransferofKnowledgeinvolvinglessonslearnt

Theeffectivetransferofknowledgewasshowntoprovidethenecessary‘lifeblood’insupporting

growthanddevelopmentofaninstitutions(Gilbert,Morabio,&Stohr,2010;Evans,Pucik&Barsoux,

2002).Inreality,whatwasfoundinthisresearchwassomewhatcontradictory.Giventhe

acknowledgementoftheimportanceofrecognisingandmanagingthecycleofdeploymentwithits

shortandlong-termbenefitstobothorganisationsandindividualemployees(Darby,2000),in

practicewhatwasseenwasaveryfragmentedpicture.Furtheranalysisoftheresultsrevealedthe

transferofknowledgefrompre-departurethroughtorepatriationwasoftendisjointedandlacking

integration.Thecorollarybeenthattherewasadangerthatorganisationslostagreatdealof

valuableknowledgefromdeploymentsaswellasendingup‘re-inventingthewheel’forfuture

projects,thuspotentiallywastingagreatdealoftime,effortandresources.

NGOcasestudyorganisationshighlightedanumberofkeyissues:

“Intermsofdebriefing,itdoeshappeninmostcasesatthecountryofficerlevel.AttheHQlevelthey

requirethatallemployeescompleteasurveyuponcompletionoftheassignmentandagainIwould

sayprobably50%arecompletedandtheother50%oftenarenot.”

“Thereisdebriefingbutthere’spurelyamoremechanicaldebriefingfromanHRperspectivein

termsoffindingoutabitmoreofthereasonswhysomeoneisleavingtheorganisation.Thereisn’ta

thoroughdetailedsortofre-integrationprocesswithdebriefing.”


29

“…wesetupon-linecommunitiesofpractice.We’vegotcross-divisionalsharingwhichhasgrown

andgainedrecognition…However,youstillfindyourselfscratchingyourheadthinking,’I’msurewe

talkedaboutthismonthsago’…..”

FromtheGovernmentDepartment,itwassuggestedtheyhadlittleformaltransferofknowledge:

“However,intheroleoftrainingmanagerfordeploymentwearelookingatpickingthisupbecause

someareasaregoodatdoingitandtheyusetheirpeoplewellparticularlyPolicyAdvisors,Defence

Advisorswhoaregoodatusingtheknowledgeofpeoplereturningtotrainthepeoplegoingoutand

thatiswhysomeofittakesuptoayeartotrain….”

Althoughitwassuggestedthata‘cross-governmentapproach’hasbeenlookedatinvolvingallthe

pre-deploymentcoursesincludingtheForeignService’sHostileEnvironmentTraining,the

StabilisationUnit’sHostileEnvironmentAwarenessTrainingcourse,however,allofwhichseemtobe

teachingmoreorlessbasicallythesametopics.

‘Wearejustgoingthroughtheprocessnowoflookingatthetrainingwedowhichisverymilitary

andthat’sthereasontheSUdon’tparticularlywanttouseourtrainingfortheirpeople.Butifyou

areworkingwithprovisionalreconstructionteams,alotofthoseareactuallyworkingoutatthe

militarybases,soitmakessensethatthey(NGOs)haveanunderstandingofthemilitaryandit’s

roles.’

Futuretrendsandimplications

Whenlookingatfuturetrendsandtheirimplicationsinthisareaofresearch,theanalysisrevealedall

organisationsprofessedadesiretolearnfrommistakesandsupportthedevelopmentofimproved

strategies,practicesandprocesses,whenrisk-managingemployeessenttohazardousregions.From

theorganisationalperspective,therewasadiscernablecallforamoresystematicapproachlead

throughlearninganddevelopment.Althoughcontradictionswerevoicedsuggestingorganisations

werenotreallypreparedenoughforthechangingworld,werestillreactiveandtoooften

rememberedaboutriskmanagementwhenaccidentsandseriousincidentshadhappened.


30

Issueswereraisedaboutthe‘professionalism’ofHRstaffandtheneedformoreprofessionalHR

trainingparticularlyforstaffbasedin-country.Thisissuealsohighlightedtheapparent‘double-

standard’appliedinorganisationswhendealingwithnationalandexpatriatestaff.

Morestrikingly,commentsraisedmorefundamentalquestionsabouttheHRroleinrisk

management:

“ThatwasthethingIwasstrugglingwithwhenIwastryingtoorganiseaHealthandSafetynetwork.

HRpeoplewerenamedbecausenobodyelsewoulddoit.Andactuallytheydidn’treallyknowwhat

theyweredoing….talkingaboutriskassessmentsaboutmeasuringrisk,talkingaboutworksafety

assessments….Sometimesquitejuniorpeopleweregiventhetaskofhealthandsafety…”

Theissueofthetransferenceofknowledgeinvolvingraisingawarenessofhowdifferentpeople

manageriskindifferentplaces,andhowimprovingorganisationalknowledgecaptureandtransfer,

wouldbehelpful,wasemphasisedinalltheorganisationsresearched.

“….wedon’tveryoftentalkaboutsecurityincidentsandlessonslearned,especiallywhenpeopleare

kidnappeduntiltheycomeback…..oneoftheareasthatcouldimproveislessonslearnedsharedwith

othermanagers.”

Oneoftheinterestingsuggestionswastoimprovecrossmulti-stakeholderlearningfrom

organisationsnotnecessarilycloselyassociated.Forexample:

“UsefultoseehowpeopleintheArmydothatandwhatcanNGOslearn.Becausetheyhavethe

scaleandtheyhavethelogistics.Theyhaveapropercommandandcontrolstructure….”

“Onlessonslearned,Ithinkwehadacaseofabduction,afterthattherewereseveralsimulation

exercises…tomakesurethatwelearntlessonsfromthat,andasfarasIknow,Ithinkweused

externalagenciestohelpuswiththat.”

Forgovernmentrunorganisationsasignificantfutureorganisationalchallengeidentifiedinthis

researchcentredonstructureandprocess.Forthegovernmentcasestudy,theorganisationalsplit

betweentheSafetyandSecurityTeaminPGHQlocatedawayfromthecapitalandthePolicyTeamin


31

themainbuildinginthecapitalcity,createdapparenttensionsinbothoperationalandstrategic

management.

Ofcoursethesheermagnitudeofvariouscrisesasaresultofpopulationgrowth,climatechangeand

humanconflictitwassuggested,continuedtocreatemajorriskfactors.Thiswasalignedtothekey

issueofchangefatigueandthemoreeffectivemanagementofriskinvolvingtheneedforincreased

inter-agencyworking.Thispromptedafinalissuetobehighlightedinthissectionwhichcouldplaya

majorroleinfuturetrendsnamelytheoneofHumanitarianAidandCivil-Militaryrelations.

Undoubtedly,thisistimely,giventheapparentneedforadditionalinter-agencyco-operationin,

amongstotherissues,thedutyofcareprocessinaburgeoningnumberofdisasterandconflict

regionsthroughouttheworld.

“Ithinkthereshouldbedefinitediscussionsatalllevelswheretheinformationcanflow(between

agencies)...Butfromthemilitarysidethereisfrustration.They(NGOs)saywearenothingtodo

withthemilitarybutasyouknowwhenthereisaproblem,thefirstpeopletheyringarethe

military.Thereneedstobeastructureinplacethatweknowwhosewhere,who’sdoingwhat,not

keepaneyeonthembutjustsoiftherearedramaswecandealwiththem.”

Conclusionanddiscussion

Inconclusion,thispapercontributesexploratoryqualitativeresearchontheroleofHRMinthe

provisionofsupportwhenorganizationsundertakeriskmanagementinthedeploymentof

employeestohazardousenvironmentsinthehumanitarianaidandsecuritysectors.Further,the

exploratoryresearchfromanorganizationalperspectivewasusedtoidentifyingeneral,currentand

emergingkeyissuesinthesupportofandthebarriersto,thesuccessoforganisationalsupportof

employeesdeployedinhazardousregionsoftheworld.Inparticular,theaimwastoassesstherole

ofHRMinthechallengingprocessofadutyofcarebyorganisationstoitsemployeeswhendeployed

indangerousworkenvironments.

Anexemplarofrhetoricandrealityintheriskmanagementofhumanitarianaidandsecuritysector

staffcanbeidentifiedinThePeopleIn-AidCodeofGoodPracticeinHRMforthereliefand

developmentsector,whichstates:


32

‘Thesecurity,goodhealthandsafetyofourstaffareaprimeresponsibilityofourorganisation.’

(2003,p20).

However,asidentifiedinthisresearch,therhetoricinsomeorganizationsisoftendifferenttothe

realitythataidandsecuritysectoremployeessometimesfaceinthefield.

Thispaperbuildsonresearchandpolicyliteratureandarguedthattheopportunityfororganisations

tocollectivelyconsidertheissueofthesecurityofhumanitarianaidandsecuritysectoremployeesis

prescient.Indeedtheimportanceorganisationsplaceonthisissuesendsamessagetoleaders,

managersandemployeesalike,astohowmuchofanorganisationalpriorityitshouldbe.Thereisa

generaltendencyintheinternationalhumanitarianaidandsecuritycommunitytoreactquicklyafter

anincident,butfocusedattentionontheimportanceofriskmanagementinrelationtoHRMhas

beenhardtomaintain.Moreover,asthispaperhasargued,thelackofactiveengagementandco-

ordinationbetweenorganizationsinrelationtosecuritysupportforitspersonnelcanhavea

negativeimpactontheoverallhumanitarianandsecurityprojectoutcomes.

Itisrecognisedthattheworkofhumanitarian,developmentandsecurityorganisationsoftenplace

greatdemandsonstaffinconditionsofcomplexityandrisk.Organisationsthereforehaveadutyof

caretoensurethephysicalandemotionalwell-beingofstaffbefore,duringandoncompletionof

theirperiodofworkwiththeorganisation.Health,safetyandsecurityaredynamicthemesthat

shouldpermeateeverypartofanorganizationandinfluencesitsstrategicmanagementapproach.It

hasbeenpositedthatifstaffiscentraltotheachievementofthemissionsofanorganisation,how

centralarepeopleintheplanningofriskmanagementstrategies?Iforganisationsaregoingto

continuetoworkinhighlycomplexandinsecureenvironmentsitisarguedtheymustplaceahigh

levelofimportanceuponthecareofstaff,sothatitbecomespartofthecultureacrossthewhole

organisation–fromtheseniormanagementdowntotheoperationallevel.

Stressfulandriskysituationsareinevitableinbothhumanitariananddevelopmentworkbut

maintainingthesafetyofstaffshouldbeparamount.Yetitissuggested,thereismuchmorethatcan

andmustbedonetomitigatetherisksofillness,injury,stress,andcriticalincidents,forstaffand

theirdependants.Itisaxiomaticthatemployingorganisationsshouldensurethatthesecurity,health

andsafetyofallstaffareappropriatelyprovidedasfarasispossible,andthatmeasuresareinplace


33

tosafeguardtheirwell-being.Theprimaryobjectiveisensuringthatstaffisabletodeliverthe

servicesorganisationsrequireinthemostchallengingenvironments.However,thiswillrequire

significantthoughtandplanningonthepartofmanagers,andarecognitionthatimprovingstaff

securitymayalsoaddtoprojectcosts.

Overall,theresearchsupportedtheliterature(Stoddard&Harmer,2010)whichhassuggestedthe

moresuccessfulfield-levelsecuritycoordinationplatformshavebeengeneratedbytheorganisations

themselves.Oftendrivenbyextremeneed,thefieldplatformsofferorganisationsarangeof

additionalsupporttotheirexistingsecuritymanagementarrangements,including:

• Conveninginter-agencysecuritymeetingsandopportunitiesforthetransferofknowledge;

• Providingsecurityalerts,crosscheckinginformationandundertakingsecurityincident

reportingandanalysis;

• Carryingoutriskassessments,undertakingtrendanalysis,andcommunicatingthesein

periodicsecuritythreatreports;

• Providingintroductorysecuritybriefings,aswellastechnicalassistanceandadviceto

individualagencies,andtraining;

• Crisismanagement:providingsupportwithcontingencyplanning;andfacilitatingin-extremis

support,forexample,ifanagencysuffersacriticalincidentsuchasthekidnappingofstaff,

theplatformmightbeabletoprovideadditionalanalysisandsupportthroughlocalnetworks.

However,literatureinthisareaofstudyhasnotfullyfocussedonthefactthat,inmanyways,the

HRMfunctioniswheresecuritymanagementandlegislationultimatelyconverge.Aspreviously

suggested,inalmosteveryjurisdictiontheorganisationhasastatutorydutytoprovideahealthyand

safeplaceforstafftoworkandisexpectedtomitigatetherisksstaffmayface.Forthisreason,itis

argueditisimperativethatHRMprofessionalsareinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofrisk

managementstrategiesandpractices.ItisclearthatinthepasttheHRMfunctionhasoftenbeen

missingorconsideredinsignificantwhenithascometoriskmanagementdecisions.Alongwith

evidencefromthisresearch,commonsense,goodmanagementpracticeandemploymentlaw


34

dictatesthattheHRMvoicebeanintegralpartofthedesign,implementationandreviewofsecurity

managementpolicyandpractice.

Muchoftheextantresearchinthisareahighlightedmanyrelevantpointsandagoodfoundation

fromwhichtobuildacaseforHRMinvolvementinstrategicsecuritymanagementdecisions.Itis

thisfoundationcombinedwithextantresearch,thathasinformedtheseconclusionsaboutwhatis

missingin,ratherthanwhatiswrongwith,theworkalreadydoneinthisimportantarea.To

summarise,conclusionsdrawninclude:

• Thereisalackofcomprehensiveinformationsharedinorganisationsonhowlegislation

impactsonsecuritymanagementandnotacknowledgingorintegratingthiscouldexpose

organisationstohugeamountsofriskandcost.

• ManagerswhomakedecisionsonsecuritymanagementdonotalwaysrecogniseHRMas

playingakeyrolewithinthestrategiclandscapeofsecuritymanagement.

• Thereareinadequateornoauditandevaluationtoolstoassessappropriatesecurity

managementsystems.

• Thelanguageusedinmostsecuritymanagementliteratureisaimedattheoperational

audienceandshouldbewrittentoincludeallthekeystakeholdersinvolvedincludingHRM

professionals.

• HRMpractitionersneedtounderstandthenuancesofsecuritymanagementandensurethey

havetherightcompetencesthemselvestoinfluencesecuritymanagementstrategy.

Primarydataalsoprovidedsupportfortheneedfororganisationstounderstandtheutilityof

expatriationcycle-typemodelstoprovideamoreintegratedapproachtowardseffectivepeopleand

securityriskmanagement.Managementprofessionalsareencouragedtousethemheuristically

whenmanagingtheorganisationalsupportofthewholeemployeeworkcyclefrompre-departure

throughtorepatriationofaidandsecuritysectorprojects.

AkeyheuristicaiddevelopedfromthisresearchandshowninFigure6belowindicatesthe

relationshipbetweenanumberofkeyfactorsdrawnfromtheliteratureandsupportedbythe

primarydataanalysisforconsiderationbymanagementpractitionerstodevelopforfutureuse:

Figure6HRMSecuritySupportCycle


35

HRM Security Support Cycle

LESSONS LEARNT

- Transition- Rotation-Transformational

change- Capacity Building

ROLERECRUITMENT

&SELECTION

REWARD

ROLE SPECIFICTRAINING- Security- Duty of Care- Health & Safety- Job/KPIs

PERFORMANCE

FUNCTIONALPROCESSREVIEWS

INDUCTION

- Org Culture- Org Structure- Org Values- Operating Principles- Humanitarian

standards- Codes

CAREER MGT.- Rotation

Succession planning

TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT- Security- Duty of Care- Skills

PERFORMANCEREVIEWS

- Job/KPIs- AssignmentObjectives

ON

ASS

IGN

MEN

T

(Darby,2011)

TheliteratureandresearchresultshighlightthekeyroleplayedbyHRMinthecyclicalnatureofthe

deploymentofanemployeeonahumanitarianaidorsecuritysectorproject.Further,thecentral

themeidentifiedhereisthenecessityfortheintegrationofallthekeyfunctionsmanagedbyHRto

providenecessarysupportintheoverallpracticeofemployeedeploymentinhazardousregions.For

theindividualthedutyofcareprocessbeginsrightfromtherecruitmentandselectionstagethrough

tothereturnfromanassignment,andbeyond.Fromanorganisationalperspective,theinitialstage

ofrecruitmentandselectionofanemployeewithappropriateskillsandcompetenciesalignedwith

overallsituationalorganisationobjectivesisimperativetotheoveralllong-termsuccessofthe

assignment.Theemployeebeginsbygoingthroughanumberofkeystagesforexample,an

inductionandrolespecifictraininginvolvingsecuritytraininganddutyofcarebeforebeenassigned.

Duringthepost-arrivalstageperformanceisappraisedandrewardsallocated.Thisissupportedby

post-arrivalcontinuoustraininganddevelopmentlinkedtocareermanagementandsuccession

planning.Oncompletionoftheassignmentandduringtherepatriationstage,thecrucialprocessof

capturinglessonslearnedfromthereturningemployeeshouldbeundertaken.


36

Concomitantly,fororganisationsacriticalfactoristoidentifytheprocessasacyclicalratherthanas

alinearprocess.Furthermore,asevidencefromthisresearchshows,organisationsneedto

acknowledgetheroleofthemanagementofknowledge(includingessentialknowledgeonsecurity

andriskmanagementissuesinvariousregionsaroundtheworld)andthenecessityforknowledge

transferthroughalessonslearnedprocessofthewholeemployeeexperienceforthebenefitofthe

organisationinthefuture.

Thekeyissuesraisedinthispaperwereaddressedfromanorganisationalperspective;withafocus

ontheroleofHRMandthecrucialpartthatfunctionshouldplaywithinthedesign,development

andimplementationofemployeeriskmanagementstrategies,policesandpracticestosupport

deployedstaffinhumanitarianaidandconflictzones.Itissuggestedthatfurtherresearchbe

conductedusingthemodelspresentedtobeempiricallytestedtoascertaintheirusefulnessin

supportingmoreeffectiveriskmanagementofemployeesinthehumanitarianandsecuritysectors.

Further,itissuggestedthatthisresearchcouldprovideabasisformorelongitudinalstudiesfrom

whichtodeveloporganisationalcasestudieswiththeultimateaimoftestingthevalidityanduseof

existingheuristicmodels;andtoprovidemoreeffectiveandefficientHRMstrategiesandsystemsfor

employeesupportintheburgeoningareaofhumanitarianandsecuritysectoraid.

Inthepast,cynicismwouldsuggestallofthismaystillnotconvincegovernmentsandNGOsto

strengthentheirdutyofcarepractices–andalthoughitisarguedinthisresearchpreventionis

betterthancure–moreoftenthannotitisonlywhenthehumancostofsomethingserioushas

happenedthatanaidagencyhasconsideredchangingitspolicyandprocedures.However,isthe

costworthpayingandcanaidorganisationsinthefuturesoeasilyabrogateresponsibilityintheeyes

ofitsglobalemployeesandinternationallaw?


37

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