ch09

Chapter 9 Communication

CHAPTER 9 - COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to:1. Define communication and list its four functions.2. Describe the communication process.3. Contrast the three common types of small-group networks.4. Identify factors affecting the use of the grapevine.5. Define knowledge management and explain its importance.6. Describe common barriers to effective communication.7. List four rules for improving cross-cultural communication.8. Outline behaviors associated with providing effective feedback.9. Identify the behaviors related to effective active listening.

LECTURE OUTLINEI. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

A. Communication’s Four Major Functions—control, motivation, emotional expression, and information. (ppt 4)

1. Control. Communication controls member behavior in several ways. a) Employees are required to follow authority hierarchies and formal

guidelines.b) Informal communication also controls behavior.

(1) When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much, they are informally communicating with, and controlling, the member’s behavior.

2. Motivation. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying for employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance.a) The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and

reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication.

3. Emotional expression. For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. a) Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which

members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction. b) Communication provides an avenue for expression of emotions and

fulfillment of social needs.4. Information. The final function that communication performs is related to its role

in facilitating decision making. a) It provides the needed information.

5. None of these four functions should be seen as more important than the others.

II. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESSA. The Model (ppt 5)

1. A purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, is needed to begin the process.

2. It passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver. 3. The message is encoded (converted to a symbolic form).4. It is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver.5. The receiver retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender.

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Part III Groups in the Organization

6. The result is a transference of meaning from one person to another.7. See Exhibit 9-1, the communication process.

a) The sender encodes the message. b) The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. c) The channel is the medium through which the message travels. (ppt 6)

(1) Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of members.

(2) Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow the informal channels in the organization.

d) The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. e) Before the message can be received, the symbols in it must be translated into

a form that can be understood by the receiver—decoding of the message. f) The final link is a feedback loop—the check on how successful we have been

in transferring our messages as originally intended.

III. DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATIONA. Direction (ppt 7)

1. Communication can flow vertically or laterally. 2. The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward

directions.

B. Downward1. Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower

level.a) Managers communicating with subordinates.

2. Used by group leaders and managers to assign goals, provide job instructions, and inform underlings of policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback about performance.

3. Not only oral or face-to-face; letters, e-mails, and so on, sent to employees are also downward communication.

C. Upward1. Communication that flows to a higher level in the group or organization. 2. Used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals,

and relay current problems. 3. Upward communication keeps managers aware.4. Examples of upward communication are performance reports prepared by lower

management for review by middle and top management, suggestion boxes, employee attitude surveys, grievance procedures, superior-subordinate discussions, and informal gripe sessions in which employees have the opportunity to identify and discuss problems with their boss or representatives of higher management.

D. Lateral1. Communication among members of the same work group, among members of

work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel.a) Horizontal communications are often necessary to save time and facilitate

coordination. b) Lateral relationships are formally sanctioned.

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c) Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action.

d) Lateral communications can, from management’s viewpoint, be good or bad.

IV. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (ppt 8)A. Oral Communication (ppt 9)

1. The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication. a) Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor

mill or grapevine.2. The advantages are speed and feedback. 3. The major disadvantage is that whenever the message has to be passed through a

number of people there is a potential for distortion.

B. Written Communication (ppt 10)1. Written communications include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax trans-

missions, organizational periodicals, notices placed on bulletin boards, or any other device that is transmitted via written words or symbols.

2. Advantagesa) They’re tangible and verifiable. b) Both the sender and receiver have a record of the communication. c) The message can be stored for an indefinite period of time. d) Written communications are more likely to be well thought out, logical, and

clear.3. Drawbacks

a) Time consuming because it is more precise.b) The lack of feedback.

C. Nonverbal Communication (ppt 11-12)1. Verbal messages also impart a nonverbal message. 2. In some instances, the nonverbal component may stand alone. 3. Nonverbal communication includes body movements, the intonations or

emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.

4. It can be argued that every body movement has a meaning and no movement is accidental.a) We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language. b) Body language conveys the extent to which a individuals like one another,

and the relative status between the sender and receiver.5. We may disagree with the specific meanings of the movements, but we cannot

deny that body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication. a) A body position or movement does not by itself have a precise or universal

meaning, but when it is linked with spoken language, it gives fuller meaning to a sender’s message.

b) Intonations can change the meaning of a message.c) Facial expression conveys meaning. d) Space in terms of physical distance also has meaning.

6. Look for nonverbal cues as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender’s words.

7. Particularly be aware of contradictions between the messages.

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8. We misinform others when we express one emotion verbally, such as trust, but nonverbally communicate a contradictory message that reads, “I don’t have confidence in you.” a) Actions usually speak louder than words in a contradictory situation.

V. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATIONA. Formal Small-Group Networks

1. There are three common types of small-group networks.a) See Exhibit 9-2. (ppt 13)b) The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command. c) The wheel relies on the leader to act as the central conduit for all the group’s

communication. d) The all-channel permits all group members to actively communicate with

each other and is most often characterized in practice by the self-managed team.

2. The effectiveness of each type of network depends on the goals of the group. (ppt 14)a) See Exhibit 9-3.b) If speed is important, the wheel and all-channel networks are most effective. c) For accuracy use the chain or wheel. d) The wheel is best for allowing leaders to emerge. e) If member satisfaction is important, the all-channel network is best and the

wheel worst.

B. The Informal Group Communication Network1. In an informal system information flows along the well-known grapevine and

rumors can flourish.2. A classic study of the grapevine investigated the communication pattern among

sixty-seven managerial personnel in a small manufacturing firm.a) The grapevine was an important source of information; only 10 percent of

the executives acted as liaison individuals. (ppt 15)b) Information on events of general interest tended to flow between the major

functional groups.c) No evidence surfaced to suggest that any one group consistently acted as

liaisons; rather, different types of information passed through different liaison persons.

3. Replication found that only 10 percent act as liaison individuals. 4. Grapevine accuracy

a) The grapevine carries information that is 75 percent accurate.5. Rumors emerge as a response to situations that are important to us, where there is

ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety. 6. A rumor will persist either until the wants and expectations creating the

uncertainty underlying the rumor are fulfilled or until the anxiety is reduced.a) The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization’s

communication network.b) It identifies for managers those confusing issues that employees consider

important and that create anxiety. c) It acts as both a filter and a feedback mechanism, picking up the issues that

employees consider relevant. d) For employees, the grapevine is particularly valuable for translating formal

communications into their group’s own jargon.

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C. Computer-Aided Communication (ppt 16)1. Includes electronic mail (e-mail), intranet and extranet links, and video-

conferencing.2. E-mail

a) Uses the Internet to transmit and receive computer-generated text and documents.

b) A recent study found that the average U.S. employee receives thirty-one e-mail messages daily.

c) Benefits(1) Message can be quickly written, edited, and stored.(2) Messages can be distributed to one person or thousands.(3) Messages can be read, in their entirety, at the convenience of the

recipient.(4) The cost of sending formal e-mail messages is a fraction of the cost to

print, duplicate, and distribute a comparable letter or brochure.d) Drawbacks

(1) Information overload.(2) Time consuming to read, absorb, and respond to messages daily.(3) Messages lack emotional content. The nonverbal cues in a face-to-face

message or the tone of voice doesn’t come across in e-mail.(4) Messages tend to be cold and impersonal.(5) Not the best means to convey certain information such as layoffs, plant

closings, or other messages that might evoke emotional responses and require empathy or social support.

3. Instant Messaging (ppt 17)a) Instant messaging is essential real-time email.b) The advantages over email include no delay, no in-box clutter, and no

uncertainty as to whether the message was received.4. Intranet and Extranet Links

a) Intranets are private, organization-wide information networks that look and act like a Web site but to which only people in an organization have access.

b) Extranet links connect internal employees with selected suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.

5. Videoconferencinga) Permits employees in an organization to have meetings with people at

different locations.b) Live audio and video images of members allow them to see, hear, and talk

with each other.c) Unlike previous specially-equipped rooms, cameras and microphones are

now being attached to individual computers, allowing people to participate without leaving their desks.

6. Summary a) It is no longer necessary for employees to be at their workstation to be

available. Pagers, cellular phones, and personal communicators allow location flexibility for employees.

b) Organizational boundaries become less relevant as a result of computer-aided communications. Networked computers allow employees to conduct business on a broader basis.

7. Knowledge Management (ppt 18-22)

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a) The process of organizing and distributing an organization’s collective wisdom.

b) Important for three reasons.(1) Intellectual assets are now as important as other assets.(2) As boomers leave the workforce, there will be a wealth of knowledge

lost if there are no attempts to capture it.(3) A well-designed system will reduce redundancies.

c) Involves developing a database of pertinent information that employees can readily access.

VI. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (ppt 23)A. Filtering

1. Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so that the receiver will see it more favorably.

2. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization’s structure. a) The more vertical levels, the more filtering. b) Filtering occurs wherever there are status differences.

B. Selective Perception1. Selective perception occurs when the receiver in the communication process sees

and hears things in a selective way based on his needs, motivations, experience/background, and other personal characteristics.

2. The receiver also projects his interests and expectations into communications as he decodes them.

C. Information Overload1. Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data.2. When individuals have more information than they can sort and use they tend to

weed out, ignore, pass over, or forget information.

D. Gender Styles1. Men and women use oral communication for different reasons.2. Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it to create connection.

a) For many men conversations are primarily a means to preserve independence and maintain status in a hierarchical social order.

b) For many women conversations are negotiations for closeness in which people try to seek and give confirmation and support.

c) When men hear a problem, they want to assert their desire for independence and control by providing solutions.

d) The women present the problem to gain support and connection, not to get the male’s advice.

E. Emotions1. How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication message will in-

fluence how he or she interprets it. 2. Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication.

F. Language1. Age, education, and cultural background are three of the more obvious variables

that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he gives to words.

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2. In an organization employees usually come from diverse backgrounds. 3. Grouping employees into departments creates specialists who develop their own

jargon or technical language. 4. In large organizations members are also frequently widely dispersed

geographically.5. The existence of vertical levels can also cause language problems. 6. Speaking a common language, English, does not prevent differences in usage of

that language.7. The problem is that members in an organization usually don’t know how those

with whom they interact have modified the language.

VII. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONA. Cross-Cultural Factors

1. The greater the differences in backgrounds between sender and receiver, the greater the differences in meanings attached to particular words or behaviors.

B. Cultural Context (ppt 24)1. High-Context Cultures—China, Vietnam, Saudi Arabia—rely heavily on

nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others.a) What is not said may be more significant than what is said.b) A person’s official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable

weight in communication.2. Low-Context Cultures—Europe and North America—rely essentially on words

to convey meaning.a) Body language or formal titles are secondary to spoken and written words

3. See Exhibit 9-4.4. Communication in high-context cultures implies considerably more trust by

parties.5. Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high-context cultures.6. Enforceable contracts will tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and highly

legalistic in low-context cultures.7. Low-context cultures value directness; managers are expected to be explicit and

precise in conveying intended meaning.

C. A Cultural Guide (ppt 25)1. Four rules to reduce misperceptions, misinterpretations, and misevaluation are:

a) Assume differences until similarity is proved.b) Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation.

(1) Description is less based on the observer’s culture and background than on the interpretation or evaluation.

c) Practice empathy. (1) Before sending a message, put yourself in the receiver’s shoes.

d) Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis. (1) Once you’ve developed an explanation for a new situation treat your

interpretation as a hypothesis that needs further testing.

VIII. ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION: IS IT WRONG TO TELL A LIE?A. Most of us differentiate between “real lies” and “little white lies,” the latter being an

acceptable, even necessary, part of social interaction.

B. Employee transfer example

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IX. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS (ppt 26)A. Suggestions for Making Communication More Effective

B. Use Multiple Channels.1. You improve the likelihood of clarity if multiple channels are used to convey a

message because you stimulate a number of the receiver’s senses, and people have different abilities to absorb information.

2. Repeating a message by using a different channel acts to reinforce it and decreases the likelihood of distortions.

C. Use Feedback.1. Many communication problems can be attributed directly to misunderstandings

and inaccuracies. 2. These are less likely to occur with effective feedback.

a) See Exhibit 9-5.b) The manager can ask a set of questions relating to a message in order to

determine whether the message was received as intended. c) Performance appraisals, salary reviews, and promotion decisions represent

important but more subtle forms of feedback.3. Feedback does not have to be conveyed in words.

a) Actions can speak louder than words.

D. Simplify Language.1. Structure messages in ways that will make them clear and understandable. 2. Words should be chosen carefully. 3. Jargon can facilitate understanding when it is used with other group members

who speak that language, but it can cause innumerable problems when used out-side that group.

E. Listen Actively.1. See Exhibit 9-6.2. Many of us are poor listeners because it is difficult and because it’s usually more

satisfying to talk.3. Listening, in fact, is often more tiring than talking. It demands intellectual effort.

a) The average person speaks at a rate of about 150 words per minute, whereas we have the capacity to listen at the rate of over 1,000 words per minute.

4. Active listening is enhanced when the receiver develops empathy with the sender, that is, when the receiver tries to place himself in the sender’s position.

5. Because senders differ in attitudes, interests, needs, and expectations, empathy makes it easier to understand the actual content of a message.

6. An empathetic listener reserves judgment on the message’s content and carefully listens to what is being said.

F. Constrain Emotions.1. If we’re emotionally upset over an issue, we’re likely to misconstrue incoming

messages.2. The best approach is to defer further communication until composure is regained.

G. Use the Grapevine.1. You can’t eliminate the grapevine, therefore use it and make it work for you.

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2. The grapevine is a valuable source of feedback.3. The grapevine can carry damaging rumors that reduce the effectiveness of formal

communication. a) To lessen this destructive force, make good use of formal channels.

SUMMARY (ppt 27-28)1. Organizations use communication for four primary purposes or functions: control,

motivation, emotional expression, and for exchanging information.2. The communication process model consists of a purpose, expressed as a message that passes

between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is encoded (converted to a symbolic form). It is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver. The receiver retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is a transference of meaning from one person to another.

3. Communication can flow in two primary directions in an organization—vertically or laterally. The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward directions.

4. Managers have a number of channels of communication available to them, but each has its own unique strengths and weaknesses. The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication. It is fast and provides feedback. The major disadvantage is that whenever the message has to be passed through a number of people there is a potential for distortion. Written communications are tangible and verifiable. But they are time consuming and often lack in feedback. Verbal messages also impart a nonverbal message.

5. Organizations have both formal small group networks; the chain, wheel, and all-channel networks but also information networks like the grapevine.

6. Communication in today’s organizations is enhanced and enriched by computer-aided technologies including electronic mail, instant messaging, intranet and extranet links, videoconferencing, and knowledge-management systems. Each technology has its advantages and its drawbacks.

7. There are six common barriers to effective communication. Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so that the receiver will see it more favorably. Filtering occurs wherever there are status differences. Selective perception occurs when the receiver in the communication process sees and hears things in a selective way based on his needs, motivations, experience/background, and other personal characteristics. Information overload is the result of individuals having a finite capacity for processing data, and the information to work with exceeds the processing capacity. Gender styles: men use talk to emphasize status; women use it to create connection. Emotions reflect how the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication message and will influence how he or she interprets it. Language—age, education, and cultural background are variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he gives to words.

8. Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences the meaning that individuals take from what is actually said or written. High-context cultures—China, Vietnam, and Saudi Arabia—rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others. Low-context cultures—Europe and North America—rely essentially on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondary to spoken and written words. See Exhibit 9-4.

9. There are four rules for improving cross-cultural communication: 1) Assume differences until similarity is proved. 2) Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation. 3) Practice empathy. 4) Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis.

10. Many communication problems can be attributed directly to misunderstandings and inaccuracies. These are less likely to occur with effective feedback. The steps for effective

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feedback are listed in Exhibit 9-5. The manager can ask a set of questions relating to a message in order to determine whether the message was received as intended.

11. Many of us are poor listeners because it’s difficult and because it’s usually more satisfying to talk. Listening, in fact, is often more tiring than talking. It demands intellectual effort. Active listening is enhanced when the receiver develops empathy with the sender, that is, when the receiver tries to place himself in the sender’s position. See Exhibit 9-6.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. How do managers use communication in an organization?

Answer - Communication controls member behavior by requiring employees to follow authority hierarchies and formal guidelines. Informal communication also controls behavior. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying for employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance. Emotional expression as communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction. Communication provides an avenue for expression of emotions and fulfillment of social needs. The final function that communication performs is related to its role in facilitating decision making. No one of these four functions should be seen as more important than the others.

2. Describe the communication process in terms of a student asking a professor for permission to take an examination later than the rest of his or her class.Answer - In their answers have students give special thought to encoding and decoding. What encoding would be especially persuasive, what is the likely decoding of the professor? The student begins with a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, that is needed to begin the process: “I need to take the exam late because I’ve been ill and unable to keep up on my studies.” The message passes between a source (the student) and a receiver (the professor). The message is encoded—converted to a symbolic form (this is the wording chosen by the student). The message then is passed by way of some medium (channel) a note, a face-to-face meeting, to the receiver (the professor). The receiver (professor) retranslates—decodes—phrases into words he or she understands, the message initiated by the sender (student). The result is a transference of meaning from one person to another. The question is did the encoding and decoding match?

3. Describe the three types of communication flows that exist within organizations.Answer - Communication can flow vertically or laterally. The vertical dimension can be fur-ther divided into downward and upward directions. Downward communication flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level, as in managers communicating with subordinates. It is used by group leaders and managers to assign goals, provide job instructions, and inform underlings of policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback about performance. Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It is used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals, and relay current problems. Upward communication keeps managers aware. Lateral communication occurs among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel.

4. As a manager you have a number of means of communicating to employees. What ways are at your disposal and why would you use one rather than another?Answer - The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication. The advantages are speed and feedback. The major disadvantage is that whenever the message has to be passed through a number of people there is a potential for distortion. Written communications

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include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax transmissions, organizational periodicals, notices placed on bulletin boards, or any other device that is transmitted via written words or symbols. Advantages: they’re tangible and verifiable. Written communications are more likely to be well thought out, logical, and clear. The drawbacks are it is time consuming because it is more precise, and it creates a lack of feedback. Nonverbal communication—verbal messages also impart a nonverbal message. Nonverbal communication includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.

5. There are a number of common small-group networks. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each?Answer - The three common types of small-group networks are shown in Exhibit 9-2. The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command. The wheel relies on the leader to act as the central conduit for all the group’s communication. The all-channel permits all group members to actively communicate with each other and is most often characterized in practice by the problem-solving task force. The effectiveness of each type of network depends on the goals of the group. If speed is important, the wheel and all-channel networks are most effective; for accuracy, the chain or wheel. The wheel is best for allowing leaders to emerge. If member satisfaction is important, the all-channel network is best and the wheel is worst.

6. What is the grapevine, and what important functions does it fulfill for managers and employees?Answer – It is an informal system. Information flows along the well-known grapevine and rumors can flourish. A classic study of the grapevine found that the it was an important source of information—only 10 percent of those involved acted as liaison individuals. Information on events of general interest tended to flow between the major functional groups. The grapevine was about 75 percent accurate.

Rumors emerge as a response to situations that are important to us, where there is ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety. A rumor will persist either until the wants and expectations creating the uncertainty underlying the rumor are fulfilled or until the anxiety is reduced. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization’s communication network. It identifies for managers those confusing issues that employees consider important and that create anxiety. It acts as both a filter and a feedback mechanism, picking up the issues that employees consider relevant. For employees, the grapevine is particularly valuable for translating formal communications into their group’s own jargon.

7. What are the common barriers to effective communication and how do they distort the communication process?Answer - Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so that the receiver will see it more favorably. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization’s structure. Selective perception occurs when the receiver, in the communication process, sees and hears things in a selective way based on his needs, motivations, experience/background, and other personal characteristics. The receiver also projects his interests and expectations into communications as he decodes them. Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data, and when the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the result is information overload. Gender styles: men and women use oral communication for different reasons. Men use talk to emphasize status; women use it to create connection. Emotions reflect how the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication message and will influence how he or she interprets it. Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication. Language—Age, education, and

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cultural background are variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he gives to words. The problem is that members in an organization usually don’t know how those with whom they interact have modified the language.

8. In your organization you are the individual who will be acting as the information contact to the visiting international team from one of your major buyers. The relationship between the buyer organization and your organization is quite important, so you must represent your company as well as possible. This includes your communication style. If the visiting international team is from Saudi Arabia, would your nonverbal and subtle situation cues be more or less important than when you are communicating with a U.S. colleague? (Hint: think in terms of cultural context). Now answer the same scenario, however, the visiting international team is from England. Would your nonverbal and subtle situation cues be more or less important in this situation?Answer - The nonverbal and subtle situation cues would be much more important and require more attention when communicating with the visitor from Saudi Arabia because the Saudi Arabian culture is a high-context culture which places more significance on what is not being said than what is being said. In contrast, the visitor from England reflects a low-context culture. The English visitor would rely essentially on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondary to the spoken and written words when communicating with the English visitor. (See Exhibit 9-4.)

9. If you were given an overseas assignment with your company, what cross-cultural factors would you need to consider regarding your communication with others in that new culture?Answer - The greater the differences in backgrounds between sender and receiver, the greater the differences in meanings attached to particular words or behaviors. Four rules to reduce misperceptions, misinterpretations, and misevaluation follow: Assume differences until similarity is proved. Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation. Description is less based

on the observer’s culture and background than on the interpretation or evaluation. Practice empathy. Before sending a message, put yourself in the receiver’s shoes. Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis. Once you’ve developed an explanation

for a new situation, treat your interpretation as a hypothesis that needs further testing.

10. You are given the task of conducting communication training for new first line supervisors. What suggestions would you offer them for being more effective communicators?Answer - Use feedback. Many communication problems can be attributed directly to misunderstandings and inaccuracies. Simplify language. Structure messages in ways that will make them clear and understandable. Jargon can facilitate understanding when it is used with other group members who speak that language, but it can cause innumerable problems when used outside that group. Listen actively. See Exhibit 9-4 for the steps. Constrain emotions. If we’re emotionally upset over an issue, we’re likely to misconstrue incoming messages. The best approach is to defer further communication until composure is regained. Watch your nonverbal cues. Assume that actions speak louder than words. Use the grapevine—You can’t eliminate the grapevine, therefore use it and make it work for you. The grapevine is a valuable source of feedback.

11. If most of us agree that telling lies is wrong, how do we justify continuing to do it? Answer – Most of us differentiate between “real lies” and “little white lies,” the latter being an acceptable, even necessary, part of social interaction. You might also discuss the ethical implications of lying for the “common good.” For example, is it OK to tell your manager

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that a project is going well, when in fact, there are problems? You may lie because you feel it is easier to fix the problems yourself, rather than involve your manager. Is this ethically OK?

12. Outline behaviors associated with providing effective feedback.Answer - See Exhibit 9-3.

13. Identify the behaviors related to effective active listening.Answer - See Exhibit 9-4.

EXERCISES

A. Are You Listening?The purpose of this exercise is to give students the opportunity to both practice and experience active listening.1. Conduct a mini-lecture on active listening emphasizing the key elements and then

demonstrate it with a student in front of the class. Have the student talk about something he or she is comfortable with— family, roommate, food service at the school, and so on. The listener should exhibit the following active listening behavior: Make eye contact. Exhibit affirmative facial expressions. Ask questions. Paraphrase. Avoid interrupting.

2. Using birth month, pair the students. Ask everyone who was born in January and July to hold up their hands. Pair them.

Everyone born in February and August, etc. It’s simply a different way to make pairs.3. Have students sit facing each other with their backs to the left and right walls of the room.4. Tell the students with their backs to the left wall that they are the speakers. The students with

their backs to the right wall are the listeners.5. Tell the speakers to think for a minute about their topic. They can choose anything

appropriate [caution them to not discuss anything too personal, illegal, and so on, even as a joke].

6. Tell the listeners they are to actively listen and facilitate the conversation through their active listening.

7. Tell them they have five minutes and have them begin.8. Call time have them reverse roles. Have the new speakers talk for five minutes.9. Call time.10. Now ask them to prepare to answer two questions.

As the speaker, how did it feel to be listened to? As a listener, what was the hardest thing about being an active listener?

11. Facilitate a discussion of their experiences. You will probably discover that: Students are surprised at how good it felt to be listened to. Students had a hard time not interjecting their own thoughts and ideas when listening.

B. Nonverbal Communication

Ask for several student volunteers to participate in a role-playing exercise to demonstrate the value and important that nonverbal communication plays in the decoding of messages. Have different scenarios and roles written on notecards that can be easily given to each “actor.” The following scenarios and roles are some examples, but could be easily adapted and expanded.

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Scenario 1:Supervisor—You are a supervisor for an accounting department with a mid-sized manufacturing company. You have an employee, Roger, who is a good employee overall. However, Roger has one bad habit that has continually gotten worse—he is late for work regularly. The lateness has gotten to the level that Roger will be late—fifteen minutes or more—at least three days every week. However, Roger has worked for you for four years, and his work is quite high quality and completed in a timely manner. In general Roger is a good employee, and you would like to keep him. However, but his lateness is beginning to affect office morale, as other employees are beginning and wonder (and talk about) why Roger is given the preferential treatment of being able to come in late and yet still leave on time. You have called Roger into your office to have a visit with him and indicate that he must to work on time, or you will be forced to let him go. Your overall nonverbal messages need to convey a professional attitude of concern, but authority; you need to convey the message that Roger’s behavior is not acceptable, and must be changed. So how is he to change it?

Roger—You have worked for Acme for four years, and you are a good employee (at least you think you are, and your past evaluations have reinforced this opinion), but you have a problem getting to work on time. You are truly trying to be an exemplary employee, but your wife has recently left you (you did not tell anyone at work because you don’t believe in bringing your home problems into the workplace), and you are now a single parent responsible for getting your 7 year old to school. You must be a work by 8 a.m., but the school where your son attends will not allow him to be in the building until 8 a.m. He cannot ride the bus because you live too close to the school, and he is not eligible to be a bus rider. You have a high school student who is available to pick your son up from school in the afternoon, but she cannot take him in the morning, and you have not found a babysitter who could. Now, your boss is angry because you are late, and has called you into her office. You certainly don’t want to lose your job, so you must communicate very openly with her about your changed home status.

The nonverbal messages that you need to convey are a sense of embarrassment about having your wife leave you; a sense of remorse for being late, but you don’t know any other way to get your son to school; a sense of urgency because you do not want to lose your job. Suggestions: be very polite to the boss, sit up straight, sit on the forward part of your chair with your hands folded neatly; be sure that your appearance is as “spit and polished” as possible.

Scenario 2:

Supervisor--Same as above.

Roger--You have worked for Acme for four years, and you are a good employee (at least you think you are, and your past evaluations have reinforced this opinion), but you have a problem getting to work on time. You are truly trying to be an exemplary employee; in fact you are good enough that another company has approached you with a potential job offer. This would be a nice step up for your career, and you were getting tired of Acme anyway—time to move on to bigger and better. And, anyway, what’s the big deal about being fifteen minutes late? You give Acme enough output, so get off the issue. Pick about something really important. And, now your boss has called you into his office, and you know he’s going to chew you out about being late.

The nonverbal messages that you need to convey are basic apathy for the job and the importance of being on time. Suggestions: you may even want to be a big “sloppy” by untucking a shirt or

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turning a hat around backwards; slouch down in the chair and look down—not at the supervisor while he is talking.

Other scenario suggestions: Introduce an international issue such as personal space—have one of the “actors” stand

too close to the other. Use language that includes jargon that a person of another culture or age group would not

understand correctly. Have the actors role play different facial expressions and/or intonations.

Analyzing Your Organization

Discuss with various members of your organization where they think the communication breakdowns occur, either in their department or organization-wide. Analyze their answers in the context of Exhibit 9-1 to try and diagnose the details on where the breakdowns occur.

Second, in your organization, examine how technology has changed the communication systems in your organization. Do you use email or instant messaging on a regular basis? If so, has this made things more efficient due to less meetings or phone calls? Keep a log of various communication breakdowns or misinterpretations that occur during the coming week. This may be a simple as an email that was mis-interpreted, or as complex as a meeting that totally got out of hand.

Examine the impact that these new forms of communication have on worker perceptions due to the lack of non-verbal communication. For example, have you ever been “mis-interpreted” in an email because the receiver could not see your facial expressions or hear your tone of voice? If so, discuss this with others in your organization and see if they have had the same experience. Be prepared to discuss this with the class.

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