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Organizational Organizational Behavior, 9/EBehavior, 9/E

Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Schermerhorn, Hunt, and OsbornOsborn

Prepared byMichael K. McCuddyValparaiso University

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6 2

Chapter 6 Study Questions

What is motivation?What do the content theories suggest about

individual needs and motivation?What do the process theories suggest about

individual motivation?What are reinforcement theories and how

are they linked to motivation?


Study Question 1:What is motivation?

Motivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.– Direction — an individual’s choice when presented

with a number of possible alternatives.

– Level — the amount of effort a person puts forth.

– Persistence — the length of time a person stays with a given action.


Study Question 1:What is motivation?

Categories of motivation theories.– Content theories.

• Focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill.

– Process theories.• Focus on people’s thought or cognitive processes.

– Reinforcement theories.• Emphasize controlling behavior by manipulating

its consequences.


Study Question 2: What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?

Content theories.– Motivation results from the individual’s attempts to

satisfy needs. Major content theories.

– Hierarchy of needs theory.– ERG theory.– Acquired needs theory.– Two-factor theory.

Each theory offers a slightly different view.



ERG theory.– Existence needs.

• Desire for physiological and material well-being.

– Relatedness needs.• Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

– Growth needs.• Desire for continued personal growth and

development.



Acquired needs theory.– Need for achievement (nAch).

• The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

– Need for affiliation (nAff).• The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm

relations with others.– Need for power (nPower).

• The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.


Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?

Process theories.– Focus on the thought processes through which

people choose among alternative courses of action.

The chapter focuses on two process theories:– Equity theory.– Expectancy theory.


Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation? Equity theory.

– People gauge the fairness of their work outcomes in relation to others.

– Felt negative inequity.• Individual feels he/she has received relatively less

than others in proportion to work inputs.

– Felt positive inequity.• Individual feels he/she has received relatively

more than others in proportion to work inputs.



Equity restoration behaviors.– Change work inputs.– Change the outcomes received.– Leave the situation.– Change the comparison person.– Psychologically distort the comparisons.– Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of

the comparison person.



Coping methods for dealing with equity comparisons.– Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the

workplace.– Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.– Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.– Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward

is based.– Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the

situation



A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).

Motivational implications of expectancy theory.– Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy,

instrumentality, or valence approach zero.– Motivation is high when expectancy and

instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive.



Extrinsic rewards.– Positively valued work outcomes given to the

individual by some other person. Intrinsic rewards.

– Positively valued work outcomes that the individual receives directly as a result of task performance.



Guidelines for the distribution of extrinsic rewards.– Clearly identify the desired behaviors.– Maintain an inventory of rewards that have the

potential to serve as positive reinforcers.– Recognize individual differences in the

rewards that will have a positive value for each person.


Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation? Guidelines for the distribution of extrinsic

rewards (cont.).– Let each person know exactly what must be done to

receive a desirable reward; set clear target antecedents and give performance feedback.

– Allocate rewards contingently and immediately upon the appearance of the desired behaviors.

– Allocate rewards wisely in terms of scheduling the delivery of positive reinforcement.


Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?

Reinforcement.– The administration of a consequence as a

result of a behavior.

– Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.



Law of effect.– Theoretical basis for manipulating

consequences of behavior.– Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is

likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.


Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?Organizational behavior modification (OB

Mod).– The systematic reinforcement of desirable

work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.

– Uses four basic strategies:• Positive reinforcement.• Negative reinforcement.• Punishment.• Extinction.



Positive reinforcement.– The administration of positive consequences

to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings.

– Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers.

– A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.



Principles governing reinforcement.– Law of contingent reinforcement.

• The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited.

– Law of immediate reinforcement.• The reward must be given as soon as possible after

the desired behavior is exhibited.



Scheduling reinforcement.– Continuous reinforcement.

• Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.

– Intermittent reinforcement.• Rewards behavior periodically — either on

the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.



Negative reinforcement.

– Also known as avoidance.

– The withdrawal of negative consequences to

increase the likelihood of repeating the desired

behavior in a similar setting.



Punishment.

– The administration of negative consequences

or the withdrawal of positive consequences to

reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior

in similar settings.



Implications of using punishment.– Punishing poor performance enhances

performance without affecting satisfaction.– Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to

poor performance and low satisfaction.– Punishment may be offset by positive

reinforcement from another source.



Extinction.– The withdrawal of the reinforcing

consequences for a given behavior.– The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not

exhibited.– The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced

again.



Ethical issues with reinforcement usage.– Is improved performance really due to reinforcement?– Is the use of reinforcement demeaning and

dehumanizing?– Will managers abuse their power by exerting external

control over behavior?– How can we ensure that the manipulation of

consequences is done in a positive and constructive fashion?


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