Chapter 10Religion

• What is religion and what are the basic features of religions?

• How do world religions illustrate globalization and localization?

• What are some important aspects of religious change in contemporary times?

Cultural Anthropology and Religion

• The study of religion was an early focus of cultural anthropologists

• In the 19th century, focus was on “primitive”/non-western religions

• Current research looks at religion in all societies, including modern states

Part 1. Religion in Comparative Perspective

Coming up: • What is religion?• Theories of the origin of religion• Religious beliefs• Beliefs about supernatural forces and beings• Ritual practices• Religious Specialists

Defining Religion

• As in all of anthropology, the challenge is to find a definition that is broad enough to fit all cultures

• Current definition states religion is: beliefs and behavior related to supernatural beings and forces– Beliefs relate to the “thinking” (ideas, views, knowledge, etc.)

– Behavior relates to the “doing” (attendance, rituals, ceremonies, etc.)

As far as we know, only humans have it

Origins and Evolution

E.B. Tylor – religion may have developed from the dream phenomena and the need to explain a difference between the living and the dead

Spiritual beliefs have evolved and changed over time Hunter/Gatherers – animism/spirits in nature, no anthropomorphism, no

dichotomy between spiritual & secular world

Horticulturalists – hierarchy of spirits related to survival (water, crops, etc.), still no real dichotomy

Early civilization – deities (animals/humans), polytheism

Modern civilization – monotheism, dichotomy

• Do you know the difference between religion & worldview?

Religion Versus Magic

• 19th century thinkers supported a cultural evolution model that said magic came first, replaced by religion, and religion replaced by science

• Magic defined as: people’s attempts to compel supernatural forces and beings to act in certain ways, often to harm enemies - Not the type of magic we associate with pulling rabbits from a hat or card tricks!

• Magic can be:Imitative/sympathetic – like produces like; Ex. Voodoo dolls

Contagious – objects once in contact can influence one another after separation

Will – strong belief in the power to make things happen

Repetitive – doing the same act can produce the same result: think of superstitious ball players who wear “lucky” socks, hats, charms, etc.

Varieties of Religious Beliefs

• Cross-culturally, people express their religious beliefs in many ways

• Cultural anthropologists classify these expressions into Myths & Doctrine

Myths: – Convey messages about supernaturals through the story itself– Indirect messages– Usually part of the oral (verbal) tradition

Doctrine:– Direct statements about religious beliefs– Written and formal– Associated with state-level religions– Doctrine can and does change– Example: Islamic doctrine as expressed in the Qu’ran, debated among contemporary

Muslims regarding issues such as polygyny, divorce, women’s work roles, women’s clothing

Three Anthropological Theories about Myths: All Are “Functional”

• Malinowski: myths are a “charter” for society, they provide a rationale for the group

• Lévi-Strauss: myths express the underlying beliefs of a society and help people resolve deep contradictions between life and death and other binary oppositions

• Cultural materialists: myths store knowledge about livelihood for cultural survival

Beliefs about Supernaturals

• Concepts of otherworldly beings– Animatism (supernatural “force” in the world, but not a being)

– Zoomorphic supernaturals (animal appearance)

– Anthropomorphic supernaturals (human appearance)

– Pantheons (Collection of Gods/goddesses)

– Ancestors (former beings now represented as spirits)

Eye on the Environment: Eagle Protection, National Parks, and the Preservation of Hopi Culture

• Importance of golden eagles among the Hopi of Arizona:– They are the link to the spiritual world where the ancestors live– Their ritual use (and sacrifice) is essential to the continuity of Hopi

culture• In 1962 Congress protected golden eagles along with bald

eagles• The Yellowstone Model: parks without people• Pres. Clinton established a repository for golden eagle

feathers and remains• The Hopi have a permit for an annual take of 40 golden

eagles but their hunting grounds are limited because of a national park

Hopi Reservation in Arizona

Beliefs about Sacred Space

• Natural sites such as mountains, streams, stone outcroppings

• Culturally constructed sites that make a “natural” place sacred

Ritual Practices

• Life-cycle rituals (coming of age, baptism, wedding, birth, death, etc.) Usually involves three stages

– Separation, transition, reintegration

• Pilgrimage (purpose is to deepen belief and commitment)

– example: the Hajj to Mecca for Muslims

• Rituals of inversion (temporary role reversal)

– example: Carnival in Bosa, Sardegna (Sardinia)

• Sacrifice– Animals, humans, or symbolic

Pilgrimage: Hindu boy who has been on a pilgrimage with his parents to a temple in Kashmir, the Himalayas, to thank the goddess for him: the red cloth around his head is the goddess’ blessing

Sacrifice: Aztec Cannibalism

• Thousands of sacrificial victims, of whom many were then eaten by the local people

• Belief: Aztec gods “ate” human hearts and “drank” human blood

• Victims were usually prisoners of war or slaves• Once victims were sacrificed, the body was

prepared for cooking• Debate as to why among anthropologists:

– A way of showing political strength and feeding the poor (cultural materialism)

– To satisfy the gods, based on Aztec religious logic (interpretivism)

Religious Specialists All human societies include individuals who guide and

supplement the religious practices of others. They – are highly skilled at contacting/influencing supernatural beings and

manipulating supernatural forces– have undergone special training – may display certain distinctive personality traits that make them

particularly well suited to perform these tasks

• Specialists include: Shaman/shamankaPriest/priestessDivinerProphetOthers

Shaman/Shamanka

• Religious specialist with direct association with the supernaturals

• Most associated with non-state societies• Classic area is Siberia (origin of the terms

shaman/shamanka) but found in many parts of the world• Part-time profession which one is “called” to

Priest/Priestess

• Associated with states• Full-time religious specialists• Formal training – may be lengthy • Priestly lineage• Perform wider range of rituals than shamans/shamankas• May have substantial secular (worldly) power

Part 2. World Religions and Local Variations

• World religions are considered text-based with many followers that cross country borders– Hinduism– Buddhism– Judaism– Christianity– Islam– African religions: not text based

Population Distribution of Major World Religions (Judaism is in “other”)

Hinduism

• Most Hindus live in India• Core texts: the 4 Vedas• Incorporates diversity of ways to be Hindu• Rich polytheism• “Unity in diversity”• Sacred sites range from a pile of stones under a

tree to monumental temples

Buddhism

• Founding figure: Siddhartha Gautama• Started in northern India• Many texts; no accepted single text• First arose as protest against social inequality of Hinduism• Goal is to achieve nirvana• Strong tradition of monasticism

Buddhist temple in Japan: Buddhism originated in India and spread throughout eastern and southeastern Asia; now global

Judaism

• Origins about 500 BCE• Theme of exile and return• Key text: Pentateuch, or Torah• Monotheistic• Words, both spoken and written, are important• Contemporary varieties from conservative to reform

Jerusalem is the holiest city of Judaism, and also the third holiest city of Islam and holy to many Christians as well

Christianity

• Largest of the world religions (most adherents) – This includes all the denominations

• Basic text is the Bible• Teachings of Jesus as model for behavior• Many, many branches and denominations

worldwide (Catholicism, Baptist, Lutheran, Episcopalian, Protestant, LDS, etc.)

The Vatican, in Rome, is the center of Roman Catholicism and also a popular tourist site

Islam

• Youngest of the world religions• Second largest world religion• Based on the teachings of Muhammad• Basic text is the Qu'ran • Sunni and Shi’a are the two major branches• Local variations in ritual practices

The largest mosque in the world is in Casablanca, Morocco. It has space for 25,000 worshippers

Culturama: Hui Muslims of Xi’an, China

• The Hui are one of China’s largest designated minorities (around 10 million)

• The state classifies them as “backward” and “feudal”• The Hui of Xi’an construct a modern and civilized lifestyle by

choosing aspects of Muslim and Western culture• Their diet sets them apart from the Han culture

– Particularly pork and alcohol

Example of local variation in Islamic practices in Xi’an, China

Culturama, cont’d

• Many Hui make a living in the restaurant business• Although alcohol boosts business many Hui object to it

and a movement was begun to ban it from the Hui quarter of Xi’an

• An urban development project was launched in 2003 in the Old Muslim Quarter

African Religions

• Myths about a split between creator deity and humans• A pantheon of supernaturals• Elaborate initiation rituals and sacrifices• Altars within shrines• Close links with healing• New forms emerging especially in the Western Hemisphere

(Umbanda, Rastafarianism)

Looking at World Religions from a Local Perspective

• The anthropological way!• What is the impact of a world religion in a new,

local context?• How do local cultures reshape world religions?• Key concepts:

– Religious pluralism– Religious syncretism

Directions of Change

• Revitalization movements– seek to bring about positive change by reconstructing parts of

religion threatened by outside forces

• Contested sacred sites– example: Jerusalem

• Religious freedom as a human right– Tibetan Buddhist refugees– Muslims in post–9/11 United States

Functions of Religion

Religion provides explanations for the unanswerable, universal human problems – life, death, illness, and misfortune Where did we come from? Where do we go when we die?

It fulfills both psychological & social needs– Provides a model of the universe– Sanctions a range of conduct for people– Relieves the burden of decision making– Maintains social solidarity– Educational purposes; to pass on belief system

Connections

• Keep in mind the many links between religion and…economic systems, reproduction, kinship, social groups, politics, language…

and, migration & international development, which are coming next week!

• What is religion and what are the basic features of religions?

• How do world religions illustrate globalization and localization?

• What are some important aspects of religious change in contemporary times?

Chapter 9Communication

• How do humans communicate?

• How does communication relate to cultural diversity and inequality?

• How does language change?

Linguistic and Cultural Anthropology

• Material comes from both fields of these field of anthropology about human communication

• This field has many connections to biological anthropology - especially nonhuman primate communication, and archaeology regarding communication in past cultures

Part 1. The Varieties of Human Communication

• Language and verbal communication

• Nonverbal language and embodied communication

• Communicating with media and technology

Basic Concepts

• Communication: conveying meaningful messages from one person, animal, or insect to another

• Language: communication that is based on a systematic set of learned and shared symbols and signs

Communication through Language is a Human Universal

• Great variation across and within cultures, however, in forms of communication in general and language more specifically

Two Distinctive Features of Human Language

• Productivity: ability to create an infinite range of understandable messages efficiently– Due to rich variety of symbols– Allows for greater efficiency than nonhuman

primate call systems– We are able to invent new messages, words, etc.

• Displacement: ability to refer to events in the past and future (displaced domains) –

– Think: can animals communicate past or future events? Can a dog tell another dog about its plans for tomorrow, or what happened yesterday? Can a chimp?

The Case of Language among the Pirahã of Brazil

• Little evidence of productivity and displacement in Pirahã language

• So is their language somehow deficient?• Answer: linguist Daniel Everett says no—

their language is entirely adequate and emphasizes prosody (stress and intonation) to convey meaning

Location of the Pirahã in Brazil

Formal Properties of Verbal Language

• Three ways of formally analyzing language:– Sounds

• Study of phonemes and phonetics

– Vocabulary• Ethnosemantics

– Grammar or syntax

Verbal Languages around the World Use Different Sounds to Convey Meaning: Tongue

Positions for Dental (Left) and Retroflex (Right) Sounds, as Used in Hindi and Other

Languages

Ethnosemantics: Example of Saami Focal Vocabulary about Snow

Summary Points on Human Language

Key Characteristics

• Productivity

• Displacement

Formal Properties

• Sounds

• Grammar

• Vocabulary

Nonverbal Language and Embodied Communication

• Sign language: uses mainly hand gestures to communicate; culturally variable

• Gestures– example: men’s gestures in South Africa

• Silence – example: the Western Apache of Arizona

• Body language including dress, hair styles, postures, eye contact

Media and Information Technology

• Media anthropology and critical media anthropology

• The politics of journalism• Culture an advertising• Communication technology and

inequality

Culture and Mass Media

Media anthropologists study the media process and content, the audience response and the social effects of media presentations

Critical media anthropologists ask to what degree access to media messages is liberating or controlling, and whose interests the media serve

Part 2. Communication, Diversity, and Inequality

• Language and culture: two theories

• Critical discourse analysis

Language, Thought, and Society: Two Theories

• Sapir-Whorf– language

determines how we see the world and behavior

– people who speak different languages inhabit different “thought worlds”

• Sociolinguistics– social position

determines the content, meaning and form of language

Critical Discourse Analysis

• Focus is on the relations of power and inequality in language– Gender codes– Gay language – AAE: African American English

Gender Codes

• Key differences in words, intonation, meaning, and grammar related to gender– Conversational styles and meaning

among White couples in the U.S.• Can lead to misunderstanding

– Gender and politeness in Japanese• Gender-coded words for men and women

In Japanese, Men and Women Use Different Endings for Words

Gay Language in Indonesia

• Variety of Bahasa, the national language of Indonesia

• “Bahasa Gay” highly standardized throughout the country

• Distinct vocabulary plays humorously on mainstream language

• Some Bahasa gay moving into mainstream Bahasa to convey agency and freedom

African American English (AAE)

• Linguistic conservatives support teaching of standard American English in schools to African American children and no attention to AAE as they believe it is a substandard language

• AAE supporters say it is a language in its own right

• AAE child speakers face becoming bilingual in school

• Teachers need to recognize this and build on AAE strengths while also teaching standard English

Part 3. Language Change

• Origins and history of language• Historical linguistics• The origin and spread of writing• The effects of colonialism, nationalism and

globalization• Endangered languages and language

revitalization

Origins and History of Language

• Spoken language developed between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago

• Writing systems developed in the fourth millennium BCE

Historical Linguistics

• Study of language change through time• Concept of language families

– Example: the Indo-European Language Family

• Role of migration in spreading language

The Indo-European Language Family

Two possible locations for the origins of Proto-Indo-European: north or south of the Black Sea

Language change through migration: The spread of Bantu languages in Africa from the 2nd to 1st millennium BCE

Writing

• Evidence of earliest writing from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China– Logographs: signs that convey meaning

• Writing and the rise of the state• An empire without writing:

– khipu among the Inca

Effects of Colonialism

• Major and varied effects on change in communication and language

• Pidgins– Usually limited to functional domains, for

example, trade– Many have developed into creoles and even

national languages

• Spread of English and other colonial languages

• Widespread linguistic pluralism and language borrowing

Example of Linguistic Pluralism in Morocco

Effects of Nationalism

• Nationalist policies of ethnic assimilation through language policies– Soviet Union promotion of Russian

language and suppression of local, indigenous languages

– English-only movement in the U.S.

Globalization and Language Change

• Language decay• Language extinction• The power of global languages• Language revitalization

Culturama: The Saami of Sapmi, or Lapland

• Indigenous “fourth world” people who live in the northernmost stretches of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and western Russia

• Herding domesticated reindeer was the economic mainstay

• Reindeer pastoralism has declined to about 10% of the population

• Now are farmers or work in trade, small-scale industry, handicrafts, services

Example of linguistic assimilation and loss followed by current revitalization efforts among the Saami of Sápmi, or Lapland

Culturama, cont’d

• Saami have experienced discrimination, exclusion, loss of territorial rights, and cultural and linguistic repression

• Language is of central cultural value to the Saami, and efforts to maintain it have been underway since the 1960s

• The yoik, a traditional song form, is of particular value… why?

Effects of Globalization

• Continued borrowing of words, phrases• Increased growth and spread of

world/global languages• Continued decline of indigenous and small

languages through loss of speakers; many languages going extinct

Borrowing: the importance of loan words in North American English

Critical Thinking: Should Dying Languages Be Revived?

• Language preservation and revitalization– A sign of a culturally healthy planet– Language is an intrinsic part of culture– Dying cultures and dying languages are

treasures lost forever

• A Darwinian view– Languages, like species, live in a world of

competition– Dying languages are part of a past that no longer

exists

Critical Thinking, cont’d

• Have you read or heard of an endangered biological species in the media recently? What was the species?

• Have you read or heard of an endangered language in the media lately? What was the language?

• Where to you stand on biological species preservation and on language preservation, and why?

*MAKE SURE TO VISIT THE WEBSITES ASSIGNED THIS WEEK TO GAIN BROADER INSIGHTS INTO THE ISSUE OF LANGUAGE PRESERVATION

Some Approaches to Saving Dying Languages

• Formal classroom instruction in the language

• Master-apprentice system in one-on-one situation

• Web-based tools and services for language learning and preservation

• How do humans communicate?

• How does communication relate to cultural diversity and inequality?

• How does language change?

Chapter 8Political and Legal Systems

• What does political anthropology cover?• What is the scope of legal anthropology?• How are political and legal systems

changing?

Part 1. Politics, Political Organization, and Leadership

• Political anthropology is the cross-cultural study of power and related concepts such as influence and authority

• Political anthropologists define key concepts differently than political scientists do – which is a reflection of anthropology’s cross-cultural focus

The Scope of Political Anthropology

• Political anthropologists study– Who has power and who does not– Degrees of power– Bases of power– Abuses of power– Political organization and government– Political leadership roles– Relationships between political and religious

power– Change in political organization and power

relationships through globalization and media

Do All Cultures Have “Politics”?

• Is political behavior innate and inevitable among all human people and groups, or is it learned behavior and variable?

• Cultural anthropology’s answer: – There is evidence of leadership, dominance, and

power roles as learned behavior…so if there is an innate “political tendency” it does not explain everything

Three Aspects of Political Leadership

• Power: the ability to bring about results, often through the possession or use of forceful means

• Authority: the right to take certain forms of action

• Influence: the ability to achieve a desired end by exerting social or moral pressure on someone or some group

Part 2. Political Organization and Leadership

• Anthropologists recognize that cross-cultural political organization is best understood within four major categories, that are connected to the modes of livelihood. These categories are Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms, and States.

Bands

Tribes

Chiefdoms

States

Band Leader

King/Queen/President

Headman/Headwoman

Chief

Modes of Political Organization, Conflict, and Social Control

Bands

• Foraging groups• Between 20 – 200+ people; everyone

knows one another and are kin• Membership is flexible• Leader is “first among equals”• Leader may exert influence, perhaps

authority, but not power• Highly egalitarian

Do Bands Have “Politics”?

• Not in any kind of formal sense, since group membership is flexible, leadership roles are not formalized, no marks of political membership exist, and power roles do not exist

• But bands can and do make decisions as a group about matters such as when to migrate and how to deal with internal and external threats

Tribes

• Associated with horticulture and pastoralism• Comprise several bands, each with similar lifestyle,

language, and territory; members often know each other and are related

• Leadership combines both achieved and ascribed status– Achieved is through personal skills, ability, wealth,

personality, etc.– Ascribed is through lineage or birthright

• Leader (“headman” or “headwoman”) resolves conflict

• Leader relies on influence and authority, and sometimes power

Big-Man/Big-Woman Leadership

• Category of political organization found within tribes (and leading up to chiefdoms)

• Personality, favor-based political groupings• Heavy responsibilities in regulating internal

and external affairs• Leadership is mainly achieved • Common in Melanesia, the South Pacific

Region of Melanesia in the South Pacific

Making Moka

• Moka is the term for large public feast, with political motives, in highland Papua New Guinea

• They are a key part of big-man politics throughout Melanesia

• Leaders plan for years, sometimes, about how many pigs and other valuables they will give away at the moka

• Mokas depend on followers’ support and reinforce and build a leader’s status

Remember the film, “Ongka’s Big Moka” from Week 2? Apply what you learned about Ongka as a tribal leader to this discussion.

Big-Woman Politics

• Less common than big-man politics but examples do exist in Melanesia

• Island of Vanatinai, big-woman leaders: – lead sailing expeditions– sponsor mortuary feasts– are more commonly recognized as sorcerers,

healers and successful gardeners

Chiefdoms• Permanently allied tribes and villages under one

leader• More centralized and socially complex• Heritable systems of social rank and economic

stratification• Chiefship is an “office” that must be filled at all

times (leadership is no longer a part-time role)• Achievement is measured in terms of personal

leadership skills, charisma and accumulated wealth• Confederacies are formed when chiefdoms are

joined

States

• The state is a centralized political unit encompassing many communities, a bureaucratic structure, and leaders who possess coercive power

• States are secondary social organizations in the sense that no members know all other members on a face-to-face basis; kinship is not the primary basis of membership

State Powers and Roles

• Engage in international relations• Monopolize the use of force and maintain law and

order• Maintain standing armies• Define citizenship, rights, and responsibilities• Keep track of citizens (census)• Taxation, in-kind or cash• Control and manipulate information• Provide social services

Symbols and State Power

• May connect leaders to deities• Leaders may have special dress, housing,

food, modes of transportation, or other designations that distinguish them from the general populace (compare with the complete lack of such symbols in bands)

Gender and Leadership in States

• Most contemporary states are hierarchical and patriarchal, to different degrees– While some states are less male dominated, are

any states female dominated?

• Highest rates of women’s political participation in the Nordic states – why these states?

• Women’s political roles often indirect or tied to kinship – these leadership roles may be “passed” down, a wife may assume the role of her deceased husband, etc. In essence her high status is achieved due to her relationship in some way to a male.

Part 2. Social Order and Social Conflict

• Social control is the process by which people maintain orderly life in groups

• Culturally defined rules and ways to ensure that people follow the rules

• All cultures have some form of social control; but variation in formality

Two Major Instruments of Social Control

• All cultures have norms; some also have laws, especially states

Norm: accepted standard for behavior, usually unwritten – think of norms as social pressure to do the “right” thing

Law: a binding rule about behavior – these are enforceable to varying degrees

Social Control and Scale of Society

• Systems of social control vary depending on social scale

• In small-scale, face-to-face groups, social control is less formal and more likely to be based only on norms

• In large-scale societies, norms regulate daily life but so do laws; punishment for violation of laws can be serious including death

Social Control in Small-Scale Societies

• In foraging groups, norms are the main and typically the only instrument for establishing proper behavior

• Remember, these groups are quite small, so enforcement of norms through social pressure can be relatively easy and effective – if one chooses to not abide, they could simply be ousted and left to fend for themselves… not a desirous outcome! See Punishment slide next……….

Punishment for Norm Violation in Small-Scale Societies

• Often through ridicule and shaming; goal is to restore normal social relations

• Ostracism for serious offenders• Punishment is often legitimized through

belief in supernatural forces (there is no dichotomy of worldview for small scale societies – the secular & spiritual world are connected)

• Capital punishment is extremely rare

Social Control in States

• Increased specialization of roles involved in social control

• Formal trials and courts• Power-enforced forms of punishment,

such as prisons and the death penalty

Specialization of Social Control Roles in States

• Police

• Lawyers, para-legal professionals

• Criminal justice specialists

• Judges

• Others…

Policing

• A form of social control that includes surveillance and the threat of punishment

• Police discover, report, and investigate crimes

• They are associated with states

Study of Policing in Japan

• Low crime rate—why? Due to excellent policing? Some factors: – Neighborhood police

boxes and foot patrol– Volunteer crime

prevention groups– High expectations of

no false arrests– High rate of

confession: police have more power than suspects

Trials and Courts

• Trial by ordeal: a way of judging guilt or innocence by putting the accused person through a test that is often painful

• Court system used in many contemporary societies– Goal is to ensure justice and fairness– Biases (such as racial, ethnic, gender) affect the

achievement of the goal

Prisons and Death Penalty

• The prison, as a place where people are forcibly detained as a form of punishment, has a long history

• The U.S. imprisons more people than any other country in the world, followed by China – Critical Thinking? What does this say about our

culture? Too many “criminals”? Too many “laws”? Does this mean we are effective or ineffective?

• Executions communicate a political message to the general populace about the state’s power and strength

Social Inequality and the Law

• Critical legal anthropologists examine the role of law in maintaining power relationships through discrimination.

Case Study of Racial/Ethnic Discrimination in Australia

• Comparison of treatment of youth who are White and youth who are indigenous Australian

• Tracking what happened to youth in each category following “apprehension”

• At each step of the way, indigenous youth experienced a harsher process which took them to a less favorable outcome

Comparison of Outcomes for Aboriginal and White Youth in the

Australian Judicial System

How Does This Happen?

• Perhaps not conscious discrimination at each stage

• Cultural factors related to the life conditions of the youths and the perceptions of the law enforcement professionals shape the decisions at each stage: Aboriginal youths’ home address is not good, they are unemployed, they appear to be shiftless and undependable, etc.

Critical Thinking: Yanomami: The “Fierce People”?

• Horticultural people of the Amazonian rainforest

• Napoleon Chagnon has studied them since the 1960s

• Chagnon’s writings and films have promoted a view of the Yanomami as extremely violent

Yanomami Cultural System According to Chagnon

SHORTAGE OF FEMALES

RAID TO CAPTURE WOMEN

FIERCE MALES FAVORED

FEMALE INFANTICIDE

The Waiteri Complex

Critical Thinking, cont’d

• Two other theoretical perspectives on Yanomami violence and warfare: – Cultural materialist perspective: protein

scarcity and population dynamics are the underlying cause of Yanomami warfare

– Historical view: intensified Western presence during the preceding 100 years caused the high levels of violence

Critical Thinking, cont’d

• Ethical questions raised by a journalist, Patrick Tierney:– Chagnon and other U.S. researchers may have

contributed to causing the high levels of violence indirectly by their presence, by giving many trade goods, by asking people to stage violence for their films

– A task force of the American Anthropological Association (AAA) dismissed charges that Chagnon triggered or staged the violence

Critical Thinking, cont’d

• Which theoretical perspective (Darwinian, cultural materialist, or historical) on Yanomami violence appears most persuasive to you and why?

• What relevance does this case have to the theory that violence is a universal human trait?

• Do you think it is possible that anthropological research could have negative effects such as increased violence among the study population? (Think about gift giving and establishing rapport as a reseracher)

Social Conflict and Violence

• All societies experience conflict with other groups and societies, though to different degrees

• Varieties of conflict include:– Ethnic conflict– Warfare

Ethnic Conflict

• May occur as a result of ethnic pluralism in many parts of the world. Ethnicity, language, and religion are often the sources of conflict

• Ethnic identities commit people to a cause• Deeper issues often exist such as claims to

material resources– Water– Oil, gas

Warfare

• War: Organized group action directed against another group and involving lethal force

• Cultural variation in war-like conflicts, from those involving mainly symbolic conflict to those in which mass death is the goal

• Do bands exhibit war? Why or why not?

Part 3. Change in Political and Legal Systems

• Emerging nations and transnational nations• Democratization• The United Nations and International

Peacekeeping

Emerging and Transnational Nations

• What is a “nation”? Different definitions exist:– A group of people who share a language,

culture, territorial base, political organization, and history

– U.S. would not be considered a nation under this definition

• Nations and other groups constitute a political threat to state stability and control: Kurds, Maya, Tamils, Tibetans

Example of a transnational “nation”: Puerto Rico, of which half the “nation” lives off the island but maintains ties with it

Culturama: The Kurds of the Middle East

• Ethnic group of 20 – 30 million people• Most speak a dialect of Kurdish• Majority are Sunni Muslim• Strongly patrilineal• Home region, Kurdistan, extends from Turkey into

Iran, Iraq, and Syria• Before WWI many Kurds were full-time pastoralists,

herding sheep and goats• After WWI and the creation of new countries (Iraq,

Syria, and Kuwait) Kurdish herders were unable to follow traditional grazing because of the new borders

Kurdish Region in the Middle East

Culturama, cont’d

• Kurds are now employed in many occupations

• Their attempts to establish an independent state have met harsh treatment from government forces

• The Turkish state refuses to recognize them as a legitimate minority group

• Many are united by the shared goal of statehood

Democratization

• Process of transformation from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime– End of torture– Liberation of political prisoners– Lifting of censorship– Toleration of some opposition

• This transition is difficult when the change is from highly authoritarian socialist regimes

Anthropology of the United Nations• Some anthropologists are “studying up”

and doing research on large-scale institutions such as the UN

• In terms of its past role in international peacekeeping, one pessimistic view is from Robert Carneiro who sees warfare as having no logical end within the world system of states

• Any room for hope? Can anthropological research on/in the UN help?

• What does political anthropology cover?• What is the scope of legal anthropology?• How are political and legal systems

changing?

Chapter 6Kinship and Domestic Life

The BIG Questions

• How do cultures create kinship?• What are cross-cultural patterns of

households and domestic life?• How are kinship and households

changing?

What is Kinship?

• Sense of being related to another person(s)

• Set by cultural rules (sometimes laws)• Often taken for granted as being “natural”

rather than cultural• Links with all aspects of culture• Not all cultures define kinship on the basis

of “blood”

Example of Culture and Kinship: Tory Island, Ireland

--everyone is related to everyone else so friends are necessarily also kin

Formal Study of Kinship: Typologies and Naming Systems

• Anthropologists collected data on kinship terms and relationships around the world

• Created categories, or types of kinship systems with similar features, named after a particular culture, such as “Eskimo kinship”

• Kinship diagrams are used as a descriptive and analytical tool

Formal Study of Kinship: Symbols for Individuals in a Kinship Diagram

female

male

deceased female

deceased male

female “ego” of the diagram

male “ego” of the diagram

Symbols for Kinship Relationships

is married to

is cohabiting with

is divorced from

is separated from

adopted-in female

adopted-in male

is descended from

is the sibling of

Two Kinship Naming SystemsThere are 6 basic types – here are 2 examples

Kinship in Action: Three Ways of Being Kin

• Descent

• Sharing

• Marriage

Modes of Livelihood, Kinship, and Household Structure

Descent

• Kinship through birth into a particular group

• Two major types:– Unilineal (traced through one side)– Bilineal (traced through both sides)

Unilineal Descent

• Basis of kinship in 60 percent of the world’s cultures

• Most associated with pastoralism, horticulture, and agricultural modes of livelihood

• Two major types of unilineal descent:– Patrilineal (through the male line)– Matrilineal (through the female line)

Patrilineal Descent

• Found among 45% of all cultures

• Kinship is traced through the male line

• Males dominate status, power, and property

• Strongest versions found in South Asia (India, Pakistan) and East Asia

Everyday Anthropology: What’s in a Name? (example of patrilineal culture)

• Village of Ha Tsuen located in n/west Hong Kong• Strong system of patrilineal kinship:

– Women do not own property and have no control of the household economy

– Women’s primary role is in reproduction—especially sons

• Personal naming system reflects importance and power of males

• All babies are given a ming– A boy’s ming is distinctive and flattering– Girls’ mings often have negative connotations

cont’d

• Ritual importance: a 30-day ceremony is held for all babies, but the ceremony for a boy is as elaborate as the family can afford.

• A man is given or chooses tzu (marriage name) and has a wai hao (public nickname)

• When a woman marries, her ming ceases to exist– Husband refers to her as nei jen (inner person)

– May also be referred to by teknonyms (names for someone based on their relationship to someone else, as in “wife of so and so”)

Matrilineal Descent

• Found among 15% of all cultures

• Kinship is traced through the female line

• Women control land and products

• Found in Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and in some parts of Europe and North America

• Example: the Minangkabau of Indonesia

Culturama: The Minangkabau of Indonesia(example of matrilineal culture)

• World’s largest matrilineal culture• Economy based mainly on rice farming• Some men and women work in cities and

then return home• Women hold power through control of

lineage land• Sub-matrilineage groups of adult women

and girls live together in a lineage house– Men and older boys often live separately– In the household, the senior woman controls the

power and makes all decisions

Minangkabau Region in Indonesia

cont’d

• Water buffaloes important to the rice economy and symbolically– Roofline of a traditional house has upward

curves that echo the shape of the horns– Same shape as women’s/girls’ festive

headdresses

• Religion: Islam blended with earlier local beliefs and elements of Hinduism

• Longstanding traditions of music, martial arts, weaving, wood carving, jewelry-making

Bilineal Descent

• Descent is traced equally from both parents

• Married couples live away from their parents (neolocal residence)

• Inheritance is allocated equally among all children regardless of their gender

• Found in foraging and industrial/ informatic cultures

• Examples: Euro-Americans, Ju/’hoansi, Innu (Inuit)

Kinship Through Sharing

In many cultures people create kinship through sharing

Adoption and fostering

Godparents

Food sharing

Kinship through Marriage

• What is marriage?

• Anthropologists have had a major problem defining marriage since so many varieties exist cross-culturally

Criteria for Defining Marriage

• Numbers of people involved

• Gender/sexual orientation of people involved

• Functions of the relationship—sexual intercourse, legitimacy of children, shared property, co-residence?

A Working Definition

• Marriage is a more or less stable union, usually between two people who may or may not be co-residential, sexually involved with each other, and procreative with each other

– This is a broader more inclusive definition from the previous 1951 definition which stated “Marriage is a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both parents”.

• This definition excludes many marriages worldwide that are between same gendered individuals. It also assumes children born outside a marriage are not legitimate. Again, many cultures are relaxed about sexual practices outside of marriage and children born from those unions are no more/less legitimate than those born within a marriage. Therefore, this 1951 definition is antiquated in its anthropological applications.

Rules for Finding a Marriage Partner

• Rules of exclusion

• Preference rules– Features such as age, height, looks,

wealth, education– Cousin marriage in some cultures– Romantic love in some cultures– Marriage gifts

Exclusion Rule: The Incest Taboo

• All cultures have some form of incest taboo• An incest taboo forbids sexual intercourse

and/or marriage between certain kin– However, there is cultural variation in which kin

are excluded

• Lévi-Strauss linked the incest taboo with the origin of exchange among humans

Cousin Marriage

• Forbidden in some cultures

• Preferred in some cultures– There are various definitions of what is a

cousin– Various patterns of preference exist for

cousins on which “side” of the family– cross-cousins (mother’s brother’s children or father’s

sister’s children)– parallel cousins (mother’s sister’s children or father’s

brother’s children)

Two Forms of Cousin Marriage

Endogamy and Exogamy as General Preference Rules

• Endogamy: marriage within a particular region or social category

• Exogamy: marriage outside a particular region or social category

The Range of Cultural Preferences for Spouse/Partner Selection

• Kinship

• Location

• Ethnicity

• Status/economic position

• Looks (beauty, height, FGC…)

• Physical ability

• Romantic love

Status Considerations in Partner Selection (Heterosexual Pairing)

Getting Married

• Often involves a series of gift/monetary exchanges between the bride’s and groom’s family

• The wedding: range from very simple to highly elaborate and expensive– weddings “crystallize” and highlight cultural

meanings of the marital relationship and gender roles

Major Types of Marriage Exchanges

Forms of Marriage

• Monogamy: marriage between two people– Most common form

of marriage cross-culturally

• Polygamy: marriage with multiple spouses

– Polygyny: one man and more than one woman

– Polyandry: one woman and more than one man

What Is a Household versus a Family?

• A family is a group of people who consider themselves related by kinship

• A household is a person or persons who live together and may or may not be related by kinship

• Both terms are important in anthropology

Nuclear Household

• Common worldwide but not universally the preferred form

• Found among foragers and industrial/informatic groups

• Classic Nacirema household type, though declining as single-person households increase

Extended Household

• More common among horticulturalists, pastoralists, and agriculturalists

• Related to fixed economic base such as land, business

• May be extended vertically through parents and sons/daughters or horizontally through siblings

• Provides safety net for child care and old age support

Intrahousehold Dynamics

• Spouse/partner relationships– Marital satisfaction differs in love

matches and arranged marriages

• Sibling relationships– Example of brother-sister relationship

in Beirut, Lebanon

Domestic Life

• What happens inside the household:– Work– Reproduction– Care, love– Leisure, fun– Other….not such good news

Domestic Violence

• Found in most but not all cultures and in differing degrees:

– Child abuse– Honor killings– Wife/partner abuse: male violence against

females• More common where men control

wealth/property and women are dependent on them

Anthropology Works: Preventing Wife Abuse in Rural Kentucky

• Highest rate of reported domestic violence in U.S.

• Ethnographic study revealed cultural factors– Physical isolation– Social isolation– Institutional isolation

Food for Thought: How do conditions in Kentucky differ from

or resemble those in another cultural context where wife beating is frequent?

Kentucky: A predominantly rural state with much poverty

Change in Descent

• Role of European colonialism – Decline of matrilineal descent worldwide

• Among the Minangkabau– Dutch colonialism promoted male household

headship– Islamic teachings promote men as household

heads and women as “wives”– Indonesian state policy favors male household

headship

Change in Marriage

• New forms of courtship due to new forms of technology: love letters in Nepal, the Internet

• Age at first marriage– Rising worldwide

• Wedding style– Globalization of the Western “white wedding” – Some counter trends toward “ethnic” or

traditional styles– Wedding pluralism/syncretism

Changing Households

• Globalization of nuclear households – Example of the Kelabit of Malaysia

• Effects of international migration• Shrinking households in the U.S.• Intergenerational households and

“boomerang kids” in the U.S.

Kelabit region in Malaysia: Trend toward nuclear households in the highlands