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School of Chemical EngineeringBen Hansen, Connor Hindley and Mustafa Iqbal
Conventional Energy Technology
The ramificaions of environmental damage due to human activity have fashioned the stipulation of this report. Energy usage is required for economic activity and societal prosperity, however due to the prospect of inevitable depletion of the energy sources on which today’s society relies for function; the burnen of concern raises the desparity for a solution. Part of this procedure is understanding how much energy an individual in a developed country uses. When combined in context with the national usage it can be observed whether the individual is using more energy than the average. In order to a achieve this, a 13 week sample of electricity and gas meter readings were taken from a student house. Together with temperature data the impact of temperature on gas and
electricity usage was quantified as Temperature(° C)∝ 1Gas Usage (kWh)
.
Correcting for this factor, the expected annual usage was determined as 5673.64 kWh, 3.4% above of the national UK average energy usage per capita of 2011, 5472 kWh. This represents a cost of approximately £600 on gas and electricity combined, and an equivalent oil mass of 487.8kg. From a case study on a 2 kW society proposed by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich which achieved a 75% reduction of energy usage, the report attempted the same feat. The figure achieved was 66% through the use of higher energy rated appliances, improved residential insulation and more efficient water usage. However these incurred capital costs of £21,750 and yielded a payback time of over 30 years; making them highly unfeasible. Therefore it was concluded that governments need to make the aforementioned investments in new property developments, and require energy efficiency standards to be enacted legislative law such that sustainable development is achieved.
Table of ContentsList of Figures.......................................................................................................................................2
List of Tables.........................................................................................................................................2
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Energy and its use..................................................................................................................1
1.2. Fossil fuels and the Environment (Ozone Hole)....................................................................2
1.3. Fossil Fuels, Renewable Energy sources and Global Economic Activity..............................2
1.4. Global Awareness and Sustainable Development..................................................................3
1.5. The Current Solution.............................................................................................................3
2. Results and Analysis......................................................................................................................4
2.1. Discussion..............................................................................................................................4
2.2. Extrapolation of Data.............................................................................................................6
2.3. Importance of temperature adjustment...................................................................................7
2.4. Applying temperature adjustment to extrapolation................................................................7
3. Case Study: Switzerland (2000 Watt Society)...............................................................................8
4. Reducing Domestic Energy Usage (Gas).......................................................................................8
4.1. Central Heating and Hot Water (Heating)..............................................................................8
4.2. Hot Water..............................................................................................................................9
4.3. Space Heating........................................................................................................................9
4.4. Windows................................................................................................................................9
4.5. Boiler.....................................................................................................................................9
4.6. Overall Percentage Saving – Heating and Hot Water (Gas).................................................10
5. Reducing Domestic Appliances and Lighting Energy Usage (Electricity)...................................10
5.1. Electrical Appliances (Including Home Computing)...........................................................11
5.2. Wet Appliances....................................................................................................................12
5.3. Cold Appliances...................................................................................................................12
5.4. Cooking Appliances.............................................................................................................14
5.5. Lighting...............................................................................................................................14
5.6. Overall Percentage Saving – Domestic Appliances and Lighting (Electricity)....................15
6. Conclusion...................................................................................................................................15
6.1. Can domestic energy use be reduced by 75%?....................................................................15
6.2. View on Energy-Efficient Measures and Associated Investment.........................................15
6.3. Final Words.........................................................................................................................17
Appendix.............................................................................................................................................19
References...........................................................................................................................................21
List of FiguresFigure 1: World Total Primary Energy Consumption (1965-2013)........................................................1Figure 2: The effect of Greenhouse Gases on the Ozone Layer (EcoSkill, 2014)..................................2Figure 3: Plot of Weekly Energy Usage (kWh) Versus Temperature () for a 13 week period...............5Figure 4: Domestic energy consumption per person, per household and per unit of household income, UK (1970 to 2013)...................................................................................................................................6Figure 5: Average domestic (unadjusted and temperature corrected) gas and electricity consumption, UK (2008 to 2013)...................................................................................................................................7Figure 6: Electricity Consumption of Domestic Appliances (1970-2013)............................................10Figure 7: Change in Average Energy Consumption of New Wet Appliances (1990-2013).................12Figure 8: Change in Average Energy used by New Cold Appliances (1990-2013)..............................13Figure 9: Sales of Refrigerators based on Energy Rating (2011-2013).................................................13Figure 10 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) householders views on energy efficient measures..........................16Figure 11 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) householders views on energy saving issues..................................16Figure 12 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) householders views on the best methods of obtaining energy saving information.............................................................................................................................................17
List of TablesTable 1: Table of recorded data from sample..........................................................................................4Table 2: Average energy use per person for various areas of the world.................................................8Table 3: Average gas bills for average households.................................................................................9Table 4: Savings and costs of Heating and Hot Water for an average sized 'medium house'...............10Table 5: Overall Percentage Saving – Domestic Appliances and Lighting (Electricity)......................14Table 6: Energy Consumption and Potential Reduction........................................................................15
Conventional Energy TechnologyAutumn 2014 Coursework Assignment
1. Introduction1.1. Energy and its useWith an impending energy crisis in today’s society, concepts such as energy conservation and
sustainable energy sources become ever more critical in global agendas. For it is the presence of energy transformation in the transport, industrial, commercial and personal sectors that has generated significant economic activity to enable the progress of science and society as we observe today. All of the aforementioned aspects ultimately rely on a single sector; that of energy. Without the energy sector obtaining and delivering the energy required for such endeavours, the capability and capacity of economic activity and activities that improve one’s quality of life would not be possible. However, in recent years due to a rising population and global development, energy demands have increased, as shown in Figure 1. (BP, 2013) (BP, 2015)
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World Total Primary Energy Consumption (1965-2013)
Change in Primary Energy Consumption
World Total Primary Energy Consumption (MTOE)
Axis Title
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OE
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Figure 1: World Total Primary Energy Consumption (1965-2013)
Observing the change in primary energy consumption, a trend of increasing energy consumption over time is deduced. An increase of 600 MTOE alone was present in the year of 2010, equivalent to a tenth of the total primary energy consumption of 1976; a stark figure represented by the onset of recession in 2008, determined by the decrease in economic activity and thus energy usage in 2009. Hence, in order to accommodate such increases in energy consumption, energy sources of feasible accessibility and sufficient quantity are required. Fossil fuels are becoming scarce, with several discovered sources unobtainable due to infeasibility. Regardless, a sustainable source needs to be fully integrated and dependable before the complete depletion of today’s non-renewable fuels. Through heuristic environmental measures in the global community, efforts are currently being made to decrease the use of non-renewable and harmful energy sources in order to prolong their lifespans, whilst developing and integrating new, renewable and cleaner forms of energy provision.
Primary energy use is distributed evenly in thirds between transport, electricity and heating. Of these parameters, there lies a necessary energy use to achieve economic activity, with any excess energy use accounting to non-economic activities such as an individual’s leisure activities or indulgence in luxury.
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1.2. Fossil fuels and the Environment (Ozone Hole)Fossil fuels account for 80% of today’s global primary energy usage. The term concerns the
sustainability of the fuel sources; made by the fossilisation of material over millions of years. Thus depleting the reserves of fossil fuels over the duration of 200 years (1900-2100) leaves scarce time for sufficient renewal of the aforementioned resources. Hence the term non-renewable energy source was coined. The expected range of current non-renewable energy sources is calculated by dividing the quantity of reserves over annual production, however this figure is subject to change as new resources become economically feasible. (Steinberger-Wilckens, 2015)
The effect of fossil fuels are still further damaging, even today. A recent report (EcoSkill, 2014) found that the increase in Carbon Dioxide for the preceding year was the greatest of any year. The reasoning given was increased emissions from human activities and the increased acidity of the sea; reducing the Carbon Dioxide it can absorb. Figure 3 displays the aforementioned damage; the depletion of ozone gas above the Antarctic. Due to the lower temperatures the conversion of harmful CFCs to chlorine was increased. Reacting with long exposure to ultraviolet rays of sunlight, up to 65% of the ozone in the said region has been destroyed. Leaving the famous and unsightly “ozone hole”. However ozone is present all over the Earth, at 10km-50km above the surface. It is thought that in these other regions the ozone has depleted by around 20%. The ramifications of the preceding events include climate change due to melting glaciers causing rising sea levels, and increased ultraviolet B radiation; inhibiting the reproductive cycle of phytoplankton (the bottom of the food chain) and threatening other life forms, such as causing skin cancer in humans. (National Geographic, 2014)
Figure 2: The effect of Greenhouse Gases on the Ozone Layer (EcoSkill, 2014)
1.3. Fossil Fuels, Renewable Energy sources and Global Economic ActivityThe environmental effect of fossil fuel use is not the only issue of concern. With depletion of
the resources accounting for 80% of global primary energy use, economic activity will halt. As supply dwindles, the price of the aforementioned energy sources will rise sharply. This will cause a decrease in demand, whilst also enabling opportunities for previously infeasible resources to become accessible and profitable for energy suppliers. Hence the lifetime of reserves will be prolonged; albeit for a short duration.
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Hence it is established that in order to maintain and increase economic activity and thus the prevalence of the human species and society; renewable energy sources need to be introduced and integrated. As of today (January 2015), renewables represent 20% of global primary energy production, which is not sufficient for society’s energy demands. (BP, 2013)
1.4. Global Awareness and Sustainable DevelopmentHence, the motivation behind the concepts initially mentioned are justified. In order to attain
sustainability and continue to improve the quality of life of those who inhabit the planet, strategic procedures and intuitive revolutions need to be enacted.
An example of one such intuitive creation is the Janicki Bioenergy Omniprocessor. It makes use of what would normally be waste; sewer sludge. Pure, clean drinking water is obtained by boiling the sludge and obtaining water vapour, which is then distilled and fed through a rigorous cleaning process. The dry sludge is then fed into a furnace in which the heat generated is used to pressurise steam to drive a turbine; generating electricity. Finally, the remaining ash can be used as fertiliser. The system is self-sustained, i.e. the electricity it generates can supply sufficient energy for the processor with excess electricity which can be used elsewhere, in local communities or sold to the grid. The importance of this technology is found in developing countries; noting that 1 billion people worldwide do not have access to clean drinking water. The system was funded and approved by Bill Gates himself, who drank a glass straight from the processor. (PBS, 2014) Such inventions are critical. As it is not sufficient to simply inject money into developing countries, sensible and intelligent integration of investment is required to yield a quantifiable benefit.
Another approach to solving the energy issue is to reduce energy consumption. As mentioned, energy consumption is a necessity to facilitate economic activity. In the propagation of technology, energy intensity has increased; i.e. overall efficiency in energy consuming devices such as cars and electronic devises is increasing. This enables the same amount of economic activity to be achieved for a lower input of energy. In addition, personal use and self-control over wastage is an issue of which this report will investigate. Through leaving electronic devices on standby and driving uneconomically, unnecessary additions to consumption per capita are made. When accumulated with the total capita, the amount energy wasted may be striking. Many government publications and campaigns exist attempting to raise awareness of the aforementioned issue and how to nullify it by turning off devices and lights when not in use, for example. In addition with the motivation of saving money on energy costs these efforts are having an effect. However in times of low oil prices, as of current (January 2015); market demand is set to increase due to cheaper supply.
1.5. The Current SolutionThe leading solution is that of renewable energy, as previously determined. Deployments of major
hydroelectric stations have been fulfilled, costs of consumer grade technologies such as solar panels are high, and nuclear fusion is at least 50 years away. In order to add more difficulty to the situation, global acceptance and image of the aforementioned energy sector is required. Investors and consumers are not currently willing to commit to such alternatives. This is partly due to the price of such technologies being greater than current conventional solutions, as mentioned. However the main issue is the unreliability and fluctuations in the performance of renewable sources. Solar panels depend on abundant sunlight exposure and clear skies, however weather conditions will always be a present obstruction. Wind turbines depend on weather also. Moreover aesthetic criticisms are made by a proportion of society, which depends on public image and attitude to such solutions.
Furthermore an infrastructure must exist to make the proposed solutions practical, such as electric charging points and hydrogen fuel cells for electric and hydrogen vehicles. Such infrastructure requires investment, the capital from which will need to be taken from other sectors in a country’s
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government. Furthermore, the concerned technologies are immature, and always improving. Solar panels are only 10% efficient, even if the energy supplied is technically “free”.
The issue of investment can be dismissed if the context is considered. It is known that environmental damage caused by the use of fossil fuels incurs costs to society through externalities. Raising sea dykes, cleaning air pollution and sound proofing against noise pollution all represent operating costs that could be capitally invested into renewable solutions; removing the presence of such externalities. In essence, there are several benefits yet several issues currently with the integration of renewable energies in today’s society. (Steinberger-Wilckens, 2015)
2. Results and Analysis2.1. DiscussionNote that the gas and electricity meter readings used in this report were provided by the
Conventional Energy Technology group consisting of Matthew Parker, John Redwood, Adam Wood and Janiv Shah. Meter readings of a student house were taken on a weekly basis; specifically gas and electric. The respective temperatures were also noted in order to investigate their effect on energy usage. The results of this endeavour are exhibited in Figure 3. Note that the error bars on the temperature data set represent the maximum and minimum temperatures of the aforementioned calendar week, with the marker representing the average. The aforementioned temperature data was provided by the UK Met Office (2014a) with information available on how to interpret the Central England Temperature (CET) data available from UK Met Office (2014b). In order to quantify gas usage in kWh, conversion factors were used as obtained from UKPower (2014a). Their values, combined with those of weekly electricity usage were summed to plot the total energy usage per calendar week. The data used to generate the plot is given in Table 1. The data and respective weather information is available in the Appendix.
Table 1: Table of recorded data from sample
Calender Week
KW (Total)
Date
Temperature (°C) Gas
(m³)Gas
(kW)Difference
(kW)Electricty
(kW)Difference
(kW)Average
Min
Max
1 0.001/10/2
01415.6
12.6
18.6
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 114.608/10/2
01411.0 6.2
15.8
12.0 4.6 4.6 110.0 110.0
3 132.415/10/2
01411.6
10.0
13.2
34.0 13.0 8.4 234.0 124.0
4 121.122/10/2
0149.3 6.3
12.4
42.0 16.1 3.1 352.0 118.0
5 110.730/10/2
01412.4 7.6
17.2
62.0 23.8 7.7 455.0 103.0
6 115.206/11/2
0145.9
-0.6
12.4
86.0 33.0 9.2 561.0 106.0
7 97.213/11/2
01410.5 7.7
13.3
110.0 42.2 9.2 649.0 88.0
8 145.519/11/2
0149.1 6.7
11.5
151.0 58.0 18.4 758.0 127.2
9 132.427/11/2
0148.4 6.7
10.1
183.0 70.2 10.7 897.0 121.6
10 132.303/12/2
0143.1
-5.0
6.8 210.0 80.6 12.1 1000.0 120.2
11 145.611/12/2
0145.5 3.0 8.0 248.0 95.2 14.6 1131.0 131.0
12 38.927/12/2
0141.6
-1.0
3.4 271.0 104.0 3.9 1211.0 35.0
13 50.206/01/2
0155.6 2.7 8.8 282.0 108.2 4.2 1257.0 46.0
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Conventional Energy TechnologyAutumn 2014 Coursework Assignment
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 140.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
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8.0
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18.0
Plot of Weekly Energy Usage (kWh) versus Temperature (°C) for a 13 week period
Total Energy Usage (kWh/CW) Gas Usage (kWh)
Electricity Usage (kWh) Temperature (°C)
Calender Week (CW)
Ene
rgy
(kW
h)
Tem
pera
ture
(°C
)Figure 3: Plot of Weekly Energy Usage (kWh) Versus Temperature () for a 13 week period
From Figure 3, evidence for several notions can be procured. The relation between weekly energy usage and temperature shows that for colder durations, increased gas was used in order to provide additional heating for the house. The anomaly of usage in weeks 12 and 13 occurs to the residence being empty; due to students returning home for the Christmas holidays. However it is expected for the gas usage to further increase if the residence was in use, as temperature is shown to continue falling.
On average, the household in question uses 120 kWh per calendar week on electricity. This contributes to lighting and electrical appliances such as televisions and computers; abundant in a student household. Whereas the gas usage is equivalent to approximately 15 kWh on average. Taking the average electricity and gas prices as 9.397 pence and 2.866 pence respectively, the data from the sample represents £11.28 and £0.43 on electrical and gas costs per calendar week respectively. For an annual basis these represent costs of £586.56 on electricity and £22.36 on gas. (UK Power, 2014b) It is interesting to note the difference between electrical and gas prices, with electricity costing around thrice per unit than that of gas. This is sensible considering the difference in demands, where the electrical demand as shown by the recorded data is 8 times that of gas. Hence, with the consumer demand in place, suppliers can afford to charge greater prices.
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2.2. Extrapolation of DataIn order to extrapolate the data to represent a full year of usage, calendar weeks 2-11 can be
averaged to obtain a weekly mean, which can then be multiplied to represent a full year. Week 1 was omitted as it contained no energy usage data, as it was when the readings were started. Weeks 12 and 13 were also omitted because they represent usage with fewer residents in the property for less time, i.e. they do not represent a normal usage scenario.
Thus, on extrapolation of the aforementioned data a figure of 6484.16 kWh is obtained for annual energy consumption per capita. Comparing this to the respective value for the UK, which was 5472 kWh in 2011 (The World Bank, 2014), it is clear that the value obtained from the investigation is 18.4% greater. However, several people reside in the concerned household. Recalling that per capita is defined as per person, technically the obtained value would need to be divided to obtain a representative value of a single person. However as it is one small household it is reasonable to assume it as per capita in this scenario. The reasoning for such an assumption is that per household values of energy consumption lie sufficiently close to per person, as observed in Figure 4 (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014).
Note that the aforementioned figure also shows decreasing energy consumption per unit of household disposable income; falling below the values of per household and per person after the break of the 21st century. This suggests that for each unit of household disposable income (income remaining after taxation and bills), a decreased circumstance of energy usage is made. This is either due to energy becoming more expensive, such that less energy can be bought per unit of income, or that the concerned appliances and activities pursued achieve sufficient purpose with less energy, such that they are more energy efficient. However the occurrence of this trend is more likely contributed to by both of the preceding factors.
Figure 4: Domestic energy consumption per person, per household and per unit of household income, UK (1970 to 2013)
The incongruity of 18.4% in the result is to be explored as follows.
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2.3. Importance of temperature adjustment
Figure 5: Average domestic (unadjusted and temperature corrected) gas and electricity consumption, UK (2008 to 2013)
Figure 5 (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014) exhibits the significance of temperature adjustment. Recalling that the data recorded was during the winter season, it is clear from the preceding figure and the results in Figure 3 that gas usage increases during such periods due to lower temperatures and thus higher energy consumption in heating. This coincides with the results obtained in Figure 3. Hence the slight over-estimate from the extrapolation of data is justified, as it was based on an 11 week period during the winter season in which energy usage would have been at maximum. In order to obtain a more accurate result the fluctuations in gas usage per month need to be accounted for, by recording the data over the period of a full year. However due to the scope of this report such a feat is not possible, therefore instead a similar, whilst not as accurate result can be achieved by deducing the deviation in factual statistics and applying it to the sample data obtained by the report.
Note that electricity usage does not depend on temperature, shown by the plot of average temperature corrected energy consumption matching the corresponding unadjusted average in Figure 5. This differs from the results of the sample in Figure 3, possibly due to the size and scale of the sample used in the results of Figure 5. For a larger sample such fluctuations can be averaged out.
2.4. Applying temperature adjustment to extrapolationHence from Figure 5 the overall deviation between the adjusted and unadjusted values of gas
consumption was found to be ± 12.5 % on average. Hence as the result of 6484.16 kWh represents the upper limit of gas consumption, deducting 12.5 % gives the expected temperature-corrected average value for the year; 5673.64 kWh. Compared to the actual value of 5472 kWh for 2011 this gives a discrepancy of 3.68%; which is more than accurate when the context of the sample size of the report compared to the census of the statistical data is considered.
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3. Case Study: Switzerland (2000 Watt Society)The basis of this report was inspired by the concept of a 2 KW society proposed in Switzerland in
1998 by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. The overall aim was to reduce the overall energy consumption to no more than 2000 watts per person (the total use for whole society, divided by population), without a significant impact on the standard of living. 2000 watts is about the average world energy use per person, although the average use of developed countries is much higher (Switzerland was previously a 2 KW society in the 1960s):
Table 2: Average energy use per person for various areas of the world.
Region Average Energy Use Per Person/WWestern Europe 6,000
United States 12,000China 1,500India 1,000
South Africa 500Bangladesh 300Switzerland 5,000
From Table 2, it is clear that the Swiss society uses a lot of energy; a lot more than the international average. A reduction to 2000 watts would represent a reduction of 60%. It was further envisioned, that carbon based fuels would account for no more than 500 watts of the 2000, by 2098.
Despite the fact the Swiss economy is projected to grow by 65% by 2050, researchers believe that a 2 KW society in Switzerland is achievable by 2050. The most cost effective way of reducing national power consumption is with energy savings:
In 1998, only about 20% of houses were built to ‘minimum energy standards’. The government has started to push these types of construction, by making it much more economically attractive to builders to build houses to this standard. The Swiss government has also started to push lighter, more fuel efficient cars, as the weight of the average car has increased by 300kg in the last 15 years. This leads to energy expenditure that is unnecessary and does not improve quality of life. Incentives are being offered to people to use less energy during peak hours.
In addition the proposal suggested limits for energy usage. A societal limit, defining the maximal energy usage that one person could demand without affecting the health of the environment. The implications of such a proposal, if enacted, ensures climate protection, reduction of emissions and protection of depletable resources. (Steinberger-Wilckens, 2015)
The 2 KW society is a perfect example of a significant domestic energy reduction on a national scale. It shows that a reduction in the order of 75% is possible on a national scale, even for a highly developed country like Switzerland. Hence, whether the same result is achievable by the society of the United Kingdom is to be explored as follows.
4. Reducing Domestic Energy Usage (Gas)Domestic energy is used in three ways: central heating and hot water, appliances, and lighting.
Each of these will be discussed individually, and ways of reducing energy consumption explored for each one.
4.1. Central Heating and Hot Water (Heating)Heating and hot water are major areas of domestic energy consumption. 99% of homes have a
central heating system, with 87% of these being powered by an oil or gas fired boiler. Alternative methods of powering a system are electricity or solid fuel, but these are much less common. Two
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thirds of households use supplementary heating as well as the central heating, usually in the form of electric heaters or coal fires.
In 72% of homes, the hot water is provided by the central heating system, the alternative being an electric immersion heater. Often, houses with hot water provided by the central heating will have an immersion heater for the summer months, when the central heating is not in use.
The average heating bills for different types of houses, with a gas fired boiler, are detailed in Table 3. The bills shown are the cheapest average standard tariff in the market, correct as of 05/01/15.
Table 3: Average gas bills for average households
Type of House Annual Gas Use/kwH Annual Bill/£Small House/Flat 9,000 664Medium House 13,500 937
Large House 19,000 1,296
4.2. Hot WaterHot water can be saved with an electric shower, as this is independent of the central heating
system there is no hot water tank, and the shower heats water ‘as it needs it’. A 7.5 kW shower would cost 19p for every ten minutes (September 2014 average tariff), with an average retail price of £100. On average 25% of the gas bill can be attributed to hot water usage with the traditional tank system. For a one person flat, an electric shower can lead to up to a 60% saving in the hot water bill, and a 10% saving on the overall average heating bill.
4.3. Space HeatingThe most efficient way of reducing central heating bills is with cavity loft and wall insulation. An
uninsulated house loses a quarter of its heat through the roof, and as much as half its heat through the walls.
All houses can be fitted with cavity loft insulation. It is costs on average of £250 for a ‘medium house’, and can lead to savings of up to £145 a year. This represents a 15% saving on the overall average heating bill.
Modern homes (post 1920) can be fitted with cavity wall insulation. Insulating foams is injected into the gap between the two external wall layers. It costs an average of £250 for a ‘medium house’, and can lead to savings of £110 a year. This represents a 12% saving on the overall average heating bill. Older houses (pre 1920), don’t tend to have cavity walls. In this case, the alternative is solid-wall insulation. This involves rigid walls or stud walls attached to internal walls, or cladding and render on external walls. This can cost as much as £8500 for a ‘medium house’, with maximum annual savings estimated at £350. This represents a 37% saving on the overall average heating bill.
4.4. WindowsWindows are a large outlet for heat in a house, so improving window insulation can vastly
improve efficiency. Double glazing is the main method for reducing heat loss through windows. An extra pane of glass is added to the window, the trapped air between the two layers acts as an insulator. While this is expensive, up to £8000 for a ‘medium house’, they can save £140 a year, which is 15% of the overall average heating bill. A cheaper alternative is secondary glazing, where a layer of glass is fitted inside the window frame. While this is cheaper, it is much less efficient and unaesthetic.
4.5. BoilerFinally, upgrading the boiler can make a vast saving. The average boiler can be upgraded to an A
rated efficiency boiler, with average cost of £2500, which can lead to saving of up to £225 a year, 24% of the overall average heating bill.
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4.6. Overall Percentage Saving – Heating and Hot Water (Gas)The different methods of insulating an average ‘medium house’, along with associated costs and
actual savings (calculated assuming the previous method has been installed and the total bill is reduced accordingly) are summarised in Table 4.
Table 4: Savings and costs of Heating and Hot Water for an average sized 'medium house'
Method Cost Percentage Saving Actual Annual Saving
Electric Showers £100 10% £93.70Cavity Loft Insulation
£250 15% £126.50
Solid-Wall Insulation £8500 37% £265.26Double Glazing £8000 15% £67.73Boiler Upgrade £2500 24% £92.11
Total £19350 68.9% £645.30 Therefore, the total annual percentage reduction of the heating bill after installing all the above methods is 69%. This is for an average investment of £19350, which means it takes 30 years to actually save money; it is very much a long term investment. However, the time taken to see a return on investment is expected to decrease as the price of energy rises year on year and solutions are made cheaper.
5. Reducing Domestic Appliances and Lighting Energy Usage (Electricity)
Each household in the UK consumes on average 2100 kWh of electricity per year from the use of domestic lighting and appliances (Palmer, J. et al, 2014), which includes electrical appliances, cold appliances, wet appliances and cooking appliances. The use of domestic appliances in households has seen a gradual increase over the last few decades and consequently the energy consumption by these appliances has also increased.
Figure 6: Electricity Consumption of Domestic Appliances (1970-2013)
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Figure 6 (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014) shows the change in electricity consumption between 1970 and 2013 by different types of domestic appliances discussed in this report.
5.1. Electrical Appliances (Including Home Computing) The electrical consumption from electrical appliances within a household is on average 917 kWh per year (Palmer, J. et al, 2014). Typical electrical appliances within a household include televisions, computers, handheld devices and radios. Without including the increase in electricity consumption cause by home computing, the electricity consumption due to electrical appliances has increased by 377% in the UK between 1970 and 2013 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012). This is a significantly greater increase in energy consumption than other domestic appliances,
The modern television consumes an average of 171 kWh per year (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014) which is 8.1% of the electricity consumption by domestic appliances and lighting. Televisions are also becoming increasingly larger and the larger a television is, the greater amount of energy it will consume regardless of its energy rating. Likewise, HD televisions are becoming more common in households and most new televisions are built HD ready. There are more pixels per square inch of screen area in HD televisions and so they tend to consume more energy than standard density televisions (Energy Saving Trust, 2014).
To reduce the energy consumption from televisions a minimum standard of efficiency for televisions was made by the government in 2010 which was then made even higher in 2012. This proved to be an effective strategy as the energy consumption from televisions in the UK began to sharply decrease from 2010 onwards (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014). These government standards also helped encourage the use of energy efficient technology in televisions. One example is the Philips Eco Television which uses a trio of sensors to optimise the intensity of LCDs backlight (Philips, 2015). By doing this the television can adjust to save power on backlight when there is already a lot of lighting in the room. This television uses 60% less electricity than standard televisions which would reduce the domestic electricity consumption by 4.86%. Therefore by using higher energy-rating televisions such as the Philips Eco Television, the total domestic electricity consumption can be reduced significantly.
Home computing uses on average 207 kWh of electricity per year (Palmer, J. et al, 2014) which makes up 9.9% of the electricity consumption by domestic appliances and lighting. By using efficient computers a significant reduction in the energy consumption of a household can be made. Laptops use 85% less electricity per year than desktop computers due to their smaller components and screens, this would reduce the domestic electricity consumption for appliances and lighting by 8.4%. Therefore, encouraging the use of laptops instead of desktop computers would more than likely help to reduce the energy consumption for a household (Energy Saving Trust, 2014).
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5.2. Wet Appliances
Figure 7: Change in Average Energy Consumption of New Wet Appliances (1990-2013)
Figure 7 (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014) shows the change in average energy consumption of new wet appliances between 1990 and 2013.
The total electricity consumption by wet appliances is 437 kWh per year (Palmer, J. et al, 2014) which makes up 20.8% of the total electricity consumption in a household. It is clear from figure 7 above that tumble dryers consume the most energy of all the wet appliances, however, washing appliances also consume a substantial amount of electricity in a household. Minimum efficiency standards set by the EU in 2011, which were then reinforced in 2013, have helped increase the standard household washing machine and tumble dryers energy-rating to an A. By further improving the energy-rating of these appliances in a household the electricity consumption of these appliances can be reduced by 40% and the overall electricity consumption by appliances and lighting can be reduced by 8.3%.
Another issue with washing machines and tumble dryers which is worth considering is the large electricity consumption of these appliances due to the sheer frequency of their use. To reduce the energy consumption from tumble dryers and washing machines the frequency of use of these appliances in a household needs to be reduced as much as possible. One way to do so would be to encourage fuller loads per wash as this would therefore make more efficient use of washing machine and tumble dryer uses. A study found that 58% of people decide to do their laundry based on when their laundry basket becomes full (Energy Saving Trust, 2014). Therefore a potentially simple way to reduce the frequency of domestic washes per week may be for a government regulation to be made that increases the minimum size of laundry baskets available on the market. Another way to possibly reduce the frequency of tumble dryer uses in a household would be to encourage the use of rack drying or sun drying.
5.3. Cold AppliancesCold appliances use around 566 kWh of electricity per year (Palmer, J. et al, 2014) which is 27% of the total electricity consumption in a household by domestic appliances and lighting. The energy consumption of cold appliances as a whole has seen a gradual decrease between 1990 and 2013. Although the energy consumption by cold appliances has decreased by up to 67% within this time, the nature of refrigerators and freezers causes them to still consume a substantial amount of energy.
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Figure 8: Change in Average Energy used by New Cold Appliances (1990-2013)
Figure 8 (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014) shows the change in average energy consumption of new cold appliances between 1990 and 2013.
The minimum standards set by the government for the efficiency of cold appliances has helped to vastly increase the number of households with more energy efficient refrigerators and therefore reduced energy consumption. A newly used technology called magnetic refrigeration appears to be an effective way to improve the efficiency of refrigerators and freezers. By using magnets the temperature of the appliance can be adjusted much more precisely than current cold refrigerators and freezers. This means that the appliance can operate at its optimum temperature and as a result it is predicted that this method may reduce energy consumption by cold appliances by up to 20%. This would create a 5.4% decrease in the electricity consumption by domestic appliances and lighting.
Figure 9: Sales of Refrigerators based on Energy Rating (2011-2013)
Figure 9 (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014) shows how the number of higher energy rating refrigerators sold has greatly increased since 2011. This is likely to be because of the minimum efficiency standards set by the government in 2010.
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5.4. Cooking Appliances Due to the energy intensive nature of most cooking appliances such as ovens and hobs, the energy consumption of cooking appliances tends to be large compared to other domestic appliances. Cooking appliances consume on average 448 kWh of electricity per year (Palmer, J. et al, 2014) which is 21% of the total electricity consumption by domestic appliances and lighting.
Although energy efficient cooking appliances are becoming more common, most domestic ovens have an energy rating of B. By switching from a B rated cooking appliances to A+ energy rated appliances, the electricity consumption can be reduced by 40% (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) which would reduce the total electricity consumption of domestic appliances and lighting by 8.5%. The energy consumption of many cooking appliances can be also reduced by using more efficient technology, such as halogen hobs instead of gas or electric hobs.
5.5. LightingThe average household uses 483 kWh of electricity on lighting per year (Palmer, J. et al, 2014) which contributes towards 23% of the electricity consumption by domestic appliances and lighting. Therefore it is essential that lighting it is made as efficient as possible if domestic energy consumption is to be minimised. There has been a steady decrease in the energy consumption by domestic lighting over the last few decades.
One reason for this may come from the growth in popularity of energy efficient lighting which was largely because of the restrictions that the EU made in 2009 regarding the manufacture and sale of the less efficient incandescent light bulbs (Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2014). One of the most common energy efficient light bulbs available on the market today are compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). CFLs use gas inside a glass tube which is charged with electricity until it glows and gives off light (Energy Saving Trust, 2014) and they use 75% less electricity than incandescent bulbs. Therefore if all incandescent light bulbs in a household were replaced by CFLs the total electricity consumption in a household from domestic appliances and lighting would be reduced by 17.2%.
A major issue with CFLs, however, is the rebound effects which tend to occur for energy efficient technology such as this (Herring, H. and Roy, R., 2007). For example, a survey found that about a third of CFL users leave CFL lighting on for longer than incandescent bulbs and have extra lighting installed around their household because of the reduced energy consumption of CFL lighting. Therefore in order to reduce the energy consumption in a household because of lighting, more consideration needs to be made in measuring the extent to which the rebound effects of efficient technology such as CFLs will affect the reduction in energy consumption. It may perhaps be effective to greatly increase the number of CFLs on the market with proximity detection.
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5.6. Overall Percentage Saving – Domestic Appliances and Lighting (Electricity)
Assuming the expenditure of an average ‘medium’ house (£937), the predicted annual savings can be predicted.
Table 5: Overall Percentage Saving – Domestic Appliances and Lighting (Electricity)
Method Cost (£)
Percentage Saving of Domestic Appliance and Lighting Electricity
Consumption (kWh)
Actual Annual
Saving (£)Using higher energy-rating
televisions (such as the Philips Eco TV)
£1400 4.86%
£45.53
Using laptops instead of desktop computers
£300 8.4% £78.71
Using higher energy-rating wet appliances
£600 8.3% £77.71
Potentially using magnetic cold appliance technology
N/A 5.4% £50.60
Using higher energy-rating cooking appliances.
£550 8.5% £79.65
Replacing incandescent bulbs with CFLs
£100 17.2% £161.16
All of the above £2400 52% £487.24
From Table 5, a payback time of 5 years is obtained with a 52% reduction in energy from domestic appliances and lighting.
6. Conclusion6.1. Can domestic energy use be reduced by 75%?
Table 6: Energy Consumption and Potential Reduction
Type of Energy Consumption Value of Energy Consumption (kWh)
Energy Consumption Reduction (%)
Gas (heating) 11000 68.4Electricity (domestic appliances and lighting)
2100 52
Total 13100 66
From Table 6 it is observed that from the solutions proposed, an energy consumption of 66% is achievable, in theory. This is represented by a reduction of 68.4% in gas usage for heating by improving the insulation of the house and efficiency of hot water usage. The other reduction is in the form of using more efficient domestic appliances, achieving a 52% reduction.
Hence the value of 75% was not achieved in this case, however it was closely met.
6.2. View on Energy-Efficient Measures and Associated InvestmentHousehold owners were given surveys randomly which asked them for their views and motives
on domestic energy related actions. The vast majority of people when asked said they would not consider loft insulation, wall insulation, heating improvements or double glazing. On the other hand, the vast majority of people asked said they would consider using energy-saving light bulbs, such as CFLs, and A-rated appliances. These results are shown in Figure 10.
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Conventional Energy TechnologyAutumn 2014 Coursework Assignment
A-rated appliances
Energy-saving bulbs
Double glazing
Heating improvements
Wall insulation
Loft insulation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Yes No
Figure 10 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) householders views on energy efficient measures.
Contrary to this lack of motive for energy efficient actions shown in Figure 10 above, from Figure 11 91% of people asked said they believe that they have a moral obligation to save energy. Over 88% agreed that taking action to reduce domestic energy consumption is economical. Furthermore, 81% of the people asked said that they believe a financial incentive would help to encourage energy efficient measures in households.
Financial incentive would encourage energy saving
Energy saving is economical
Moral obligation to save energy
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
Figure 11 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) householders views on energy saving issues.
It is therefore clear that even though people are aware of the benefits of energy-efficient measures, cost is a major, if not the most significant, reason for the lack of motive for taking energy-efficient measures. It also appears that people are more hesitant to invest in energy-efficient measures with high initial costs and relatively long payback times. This can be taken from the fact that people
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are less willing to invest in high initial cost measures such as loft and wall insulation whereas they are more willing to invest in low initial cost measures such as energy-saving light bulbs and appliances.
In order to achieve a reduction in domestic energy consumption it appears that a strategy which reassures household owners of the economic benefits of investing in energy-efficient measures even further is required. This must inform household owners that although the payback of some of these investments may be long term, the investments will very often pay off. Of the people asked in Figure 12, 73% thought that utility companies should provide better information concerning the energy consumption of appliances. Householders said that they would prefer to obtain this further information regarding their energy consumption from energy bills and newspapers.
Energy bills Newspapers Telephone helpline Literature TV programmes Radio0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Response (%)
Pref
erre
d m
etho
d of
obt
aini
ng e
nerg
y sa
ving
in-
form
atio
n.
Figure 12 (Yoshanis, Y.G., 2012) householders views on the best methods of obtaining energy saving information.
Therefore in order to reduce domestic energy consumption in the UK, full details of the benefits of energy-efficient measures, especially the economic benefits, should be given to household owners via energy bills and newspapers. If this information encompasses information that helps to make the payback of energy-efficient investments, especially long term payback ones, seem a much more valuable investment it is likely that more household owners will invest in energy-efficient measures.
6.3. Final WordsThe gas and electricity consumption in a household were measured over the course of 13 weeks
and it was found that 5673.64 kWh of energy is consumed each year by this household (after temperature adjustment). This is 3.4% greater than the national average which illustrates the sedentary potential for energy-efficient measures to be taken in households such as this.
Upon researching how to reduce domestic energy consumption it was found that the gas consumption of a household can be reduced by 68.4% by use of energy-efficient measures such as electric showers, cavity loft insulation, solid-wall insulation, double glazing and boiler upgrades. It was also found that domestic electricity consumption can be reduced by up to 52% through the use of higher energy-rated appliances, CFLs, possible new magnetic cooling technology and laptops instead of desktops. However the potential reduction on energy usage is minute in electrical appliances due to most mainstream items bought by customers are already highly efficient compared to previous generations (see Figure 6).
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A study found that although people are aware of the environmental and economic benefits of energy-efficient measures, they are less willing to invest in these measures because they are discouraged by their often long payback times. In order to help reduce domestic energy consumption in the UK more information should be given via energy bills and newspapers that will highlight the benefits of the energy saving measures mentioned within this report, thus making their financial benefits much more obvious to household owners.
New technologies such as solar panels could be proposed for use, however due to the constant improvements in such technologies a capital investment as of current could be argued as insensible. It is clear that energy saving solutions require a great initial capital investment, which then pays itself off over a long duration. This large investment is discerning to potential customers. Hence it could be suggested that such investment needs to be made by the governments and larger entities, than relying on individuals to choose environmental protection over their own financial stability.
Thus, it could be proposed that governments create and execute regulations that require new developments to meet certain energy standards such that the determined 68.9% of energy saving is obtained; similar to regulations made in Switzerland. Prices of such developments would be greater, hence incentives should be offered with ample information on the financial savings provided by such developments through significantly decreased energy bills compared to conventional developments. It is hoped that the preceding proposals if fully supported by governments will change the public opinion of such an issue, and lead to a more sustainable development of society.
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AppendixThe following tables enlist the metering data and mean/minimum/maximum CET data used in
the report.
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