5.1 Circuses & Theatres

By contrast to other purpose built leisure buildings only “the most shadowy of ghosts” (Wheeler, p.122) survive to tell the tale of chariot racing in ancient Rome.

The Greeks were the main influence for the development of the Roman circus. The hippodrome was for horses to the Greeks what their stadia were for athletics and appeared in Magna Grecia as early as the 7th century BC. The oval race track with its hair pin turns at either end offered the ideal ground for chariot-racing.

Like the theatron, the Greek hippodrome was often little more than an oval track surrounded by a mound for spectators and open at one end for access but with more forward planning the Romans began to build barrel vaulted substructures to carry the (seating area). Wheeler cites the circus at Perge as an early example.

The Circus at Perge in Southern Turkey

Located in the Roman city of Perge in southern Turkey Built during the 2nd century AD Fine example of how the circus cavea (seating area) was carried by “sloping stone

sub-vaults.”(Wheeler, p.124) The arena is typical: “an elongated racecourse, rounded at one end and open or

squared at the other.” (Wheeler, p.124) It is possible to make out the scale of the sub-vaulted arcades of the cavea. A tourist is

walking the racetrack in the right foreground. The tree in the foreground shows the photograph was taken from the axis spina that

divided the racetrack. It would have carried monuments such as those that still indicate the axis of the circuses of Constantinople (Istanbul) and Lugdunum (Lyons).

Wheeler, p.124, il.104

cavea

During Republican times (510 – 31BC) and in the early empire (from 31BC) circuses were the main outlet for public entertainment because although the races could be dangerous, they lacked the intentional gratuitous violence and gore of the gladiator tournaments in the amphitheatres, which attracted a special audience.

The Circus Maximus in Rome

A reconstruction model of how the Circus probably looked in 4th century AD. Dimensions: 2,000 ft long, 650 ft wide and had a capacity of 255,000 spectators.

The rudimentary circus was originally laid out by the city’s 5th king Tarquinus Priscus (616-579BC) on a specially chosen site between the Palatine and Aventine Hills where the slopes of each hill offered an ideal place for spectators to sit. This original circus was nothing more than that a ring (circus) lined with smooth sand (harena).

Wheeler, p.125, il.105

There were no permanent structures in the circus until c.350BC. In 50BC Julius Caesar famously built a set of three seating pews (cavea) all around. The first was of stone and reserved for patricians, whilst the other two were of timber reserved for the equites (knights) and plebeians respectably. Women, children and the poor sat on the bare earth behind.

Caesar Augustus built a private pulvinar (couch box) on the Palatine where he and his family as well as any of his friends could watch the races in safe seclusion.

During the 1st century AD Emperors Claudius and then Nero made further improvements but the timber portions of the cavea suffered total destruction with much of the rest of Rome during the great fire of 64AD.

A triumphal arch was commissioned by the senate (c.80AD) in honour of Emperors Vespasian and Titus, which formed a pedestrian entrance to the circus.

The circus was finally remodeled by Emperor Trajan at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. Trajan had the buildings faced with marble all over. Only the outline of the cavea (seating area) remains today.

Exterior The exterior was three stories high. At ground level opening onto the street but not

into the circus were the subvaulted arcades that supported the cavea. These were leased from the state by merchants and shopkeepers. The second and third stories were little more than blank walls pierced by medium (on the second storey) and small (on the third storey) arched windows directly above the arcade entrances on the ground.

Spectators entered the circus via the huge triumphal arch of Vespasian and Titus. On either side of the entrance at ground level were corridors leading into the barrel vaults that supported the cavea and reached up to the starting stalls (carcares). Spectators could then take staircases at regular intervals by which they could access the various seating zones of the cavea by vomitoria (access archways).

The carcares (starting stalls) were located at the curve of the western end.

The racetrack was divided in two by a 340m long low wall (the spina). Shrines, statues and two Egyptian obelisks stood on the spina and at each end at the hairpins were the conical turning posts. Judges positioned themselves strategically on the spina to ensure there was no foul play.

Roman Theatres Ancient Greek Theatres VERSUS Roman Theatres

Greek theatre plan VERSUS Roman theatre plan

According to Wheeler Greek theatres were essentially open-air venues whereas Roman theatres whether permanently roofed or simply shaded by awnings “conformed with the Roman trend towards enclosed interiors.” (Wheeler, p.116).

Greek theatres development from the popularity of the classical Athenian dramas, which were performed first as Aristotle tells us in his Poetics by travelling players like Thespis who used his cart as a mobile stage and rigged up a rudimentary skene (backdrop) by means of a simple screen. His audiences would stand around or sit in ad hoc fashion. The original theatre of Dionysus that saw the productions of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Eurpides was no more than a thespian show on a large scale. The convenient horse-shoe shaped slopes of the southern acropolis offered the ideal theatron (vantage point) from which spectators could view the choruses dancing in a natural semi-circular orchestra (gathering place) overshadowed by a makeshift skene rigged up especially for the occasion of the theatre festival. Stone theatres did not appear in Greece until Hellenistic times; a century or more later.

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Theatre of Epidauros, Greece(Illustration not in Wheeler)

Reconstruction Theatre of Marcellus, Rome(Illustration not in Wheeler)

These illustrations are not in Wheeler

Drama came to Rome through the Greek colonies of Magna Grecia and had no less humble beginnings. We know Plautus and Terence presented their plays in the later third and early second centuries BC to spectators occupying the steps to Basilicas and Temples; whatever offered the best makeshift auditorium. Indeed Wheeler cites Vitruvius who wrote of “many theatres set up in Rome every year.” (Vitruvius, De Architectura V.5.7: Wheeler, p.116), which suggests that theatre buildings were indeed only temporary affairs. We know that in the first century BC there was even a senatorial ban on the building of theatres as drama was perceived to be an immoral and dangerous vice to a virile society.

When the First Triumvirate (Julius Caesar, Pompey & Crassus) began to rest power from the senate in 60BC one of the ways in which it attempted to swing public opinion in its favour was to abolish the prohibition on theatres and so Rome got its first theatre in 55BC financed by the spoils of the Third Mithridatic War courtesy of the then consul Pompey The Great who had been impressed by the theatre of Mytilene in Lesbos, Greece.

Depending on one’s perspective however drama had either evolved or degenerated since the fifth century BC and so had the function of the theatre building by the time Pompey built his theatre. As Wheeler puts it, “The change from Greek to Roman usage reflects sharp changes in function, with religious ceremony and epic drama on the grand scale at one end and intimate burlesque at the other.” (Wheeler, 116)

The key elements of the Greek theatre had over time given way to new uses and the audience’s focus had shifted from the orchestral chorus to the actors proper on the Greek proskenion (the raised base of the skene that provided a stage-like platform). As drama evolved to suit the tastes of the audience rather than the sentiments of religious orthodox the orchestra’s role dropped to little more than a VIP section. In fact, Wheeler cites the theatre of Verulamium at St. Albans in Hertfordshire, England that hosted “substantial wooden benches at one period.” (Wheeler, p.116)

The scaena in Rome was the stage and the enclosing backdrop: the scaenae frons was frequently decorated with mock architecture to provide what Wheeler terms, “an elegant background for what must often have been a not particularly edifying entertainment.” (Wheeler, p.117). The scaenae frons rose to the height of the auditorium and they were connected by lateral returns (perpendicular access corridors) so that the theatre was entirely cut off from the outside world.

Small theatres (odea) were little more than concert halls and were often covered by a timber roof. The auditoria of larger theatres presented a challenge. Rather than being roofed they were shaded by means of awnings. In some theatres one can still discern stone holes in the lower tiers of seats for the hawsers that anchored the awning and masonry corbels along the highest edge of the auditorium that once carried timber masts for securing the upper hawsers.

Minor Examples of Roman Theatres

Pompey’s theatre in Rome was made of timber and had a capacity of 40,000. It was built in 55BC from the spoils of the Third Mithridatic War and was constantly damaged by fire but was still in use in the 6th century AD.

The Theatre of Balbus in Rome had a capacity of 1,100. It was built in 13BC by a consortium of private citizens with the backing of Augustus, who was anxious to diversify his public building projects.

The theatre of Marcellus in Rome was built in 10BC by Augustus in memory of the untimely death of his nephew and son-in-law Marcellus. It survives today as an apartment block having been converted in the Renaissance.

The Greek Theatre in Ostia: Rome’s port on the Tiber

Built during the 2nd century BC probably by the merchant guilds who were based in the Place of the Corporations that lies directly behind the theatre

The auditorium is built upon vaulted arcades some of which open onto the decumanus maximus (pictured). They would have been leased by shopkeepers

The theatre is built of local clay brick The scaenae frons does not survive but the marble foot of the scaena does The auditorium was shaded by an awning evidenced by large ashlar blocks with

circular postholes along the top of the auditorium for the masts to which the hawsers were secured.

The Theatre at Timgad in Algeria

Built AD161-9 Represents a transitional piece from Greek to Roman design, i.e. only partially

enclosed. Theatre is cut into a low hill to south of the forum, lateral returns are open and no

scaenae frons. Theatre could hold 3,500-4,000 spectators

Wheeler, p.51, il.30

The Theatre at Lepcis Magna in Libya

Built AD1-2 by the same man who built the city’s market. His name Annobal Tapapius Rufus is recorded in two inscriptions in Latin and Punic on the lintels of each of the returns.

It is the oldest and the second largest theatre in North Africa. The lower part of the auditorium is cut into a hill, whilst the upper part is built of

stone and brick. Vaults underneath the auditorium suggest it may have been used as more than a

theatre; perhaps as a venue for gladiators before the amphitheatre was built. Spectators accessed the theatre via the lateral returns either side of the scaena; one of

which opens onto the city’s cardo. The orchestra preserves 5 gradual semi-circular steps, which suggests the orchestra

was indeed reserved for seating important personages. The foot of the scaena features aediculae (niches for statues) The scaenae frons is tripartite featuring the three canonical doors onto the scanea. It is

built in the Corinthian order and at one time boasted lavish entablatures. A temple of Ceres was added to the colonnaded walkway at the top of the auditorium

(not pictured) possibly to save the theatre from being destroyed by conservative zealots who believed drama was unwholesome.

Wheeler, p.55, il.35

The Theatre at Aspendos in Turkey

Built in the 2nd century AD It is the best persevered theatre in Asia Minor A series of masonry corbels stretch across the top of the scaenae frons, which would

have secured the hawsers that suspended the awning over the auditorium. The auditorium is built of excellent travertine-like limestone that approaches the

luster of fine marble The scaenae frons is built of brick except for the window frames and doorways, which

are built of travertine Two towers flanks the scaenae frons and incorporate the lateral returns that gave both

audience and actors access to the enclosed theatre The scaena was built of timber and does not survive but the piers that supported it are

visible at the base of the scaenae frons Five doors open through the scaenae frons onto what would have been the scaena The scaenae frons is divided into two mock stories featuring aediculae at regular

intervals. The 20 columns on each storey that flanked the niches are now gone but the lower level was in the Ionic order whilst the second storey was in the Corinthian order

A mock pediment surmounts the niche above the large central door to the scaena It once sheltered a statue of Bacchus with flowers

Wheeler, p.117, il.94

The Theatre at Sabratha in Libya

Built during 2nd century BC It is the largest theatre in North Africa The scaenae frons features three mock stories divided into a series of seven vertical

sections that frame the canonical tripartite façade of the theatre with its three doors onto the scaena

The seven sections feature aediculae built in the Corinthian order and supporting flat entablatures

The scaena is accessed via lateral returns on either side flanked by token Corinthian columns. These were used by actors and audience alike

Wheeler, p.118, il.95

The Theatre at Orange in France

Built during the 1st century AD by the legions occupying Arausio (ancient Orange) It was built to convert the local Gauls to Roman civilization and culture and to

provide a leisure outlet for the Roman legionaries stationed there The scaenae frons features masonry corbels that Wheeler thinks likely carried masts

to which the hawsers supporting the awning would have been secured The scaenae frons is built of local limestone and its tripartite scheme frames the

canonical three doors onto the original timber scaena. Much of the scaenae frons’ rich marble cladding was damaged by fire and vandalized

over the centuries but it once featured aediculae in the Corinthian order A semi-domed aediculum surmounts the central door that originally sheltered a

colossal statue of Augustus flanked by two heraldic griffins and two captured Gauls at his feet. A reconstruction based on the original fragments takes its place today

Wheeler, p.121, il.99