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UNIT II STUDY GUIDE

Established Philosophies Affecting Public Ethics

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Distinguish ethical philosophies and its implications to public decision-making.

2. Synthesis ontological and epistemological theories to public administration applications.

Unit Lesson

Philosophical Theories: Related to Ethical Decision-Making Many theorists have concluded that there exist several models of decision making that focus on consistent norms derived from society and individual impressions. The textbook cites several sources that are prominent in this field and list some of the well-known founders of these theories. Participants that develop topics of public policy, such as social equity, education, conflict resolution, or human rights, may base their decision-making on the belief philosophies listed. Utilitarianism: Approach based on consequences: Based on consequences, an action may be right or wrong. Jeremy Bentham and John Steward Mills derived this theory completely based on reason. The authors did not want their theory based on religion or a particular level of societal level of norms. More so, Unitarianists wanted everyone to have access to a thinking mind—based on an idea of utility or usefulness. An abbreviated summary of the Bentham and Mills theory can be summarized as “the greatest good, for the greatest number or population.” I would image “good” means happiness or pleasure for most people. Another concept closely related to this outcome is “Efficacy,” which implies “least desired input for greatest desired output”. Business and government usually take this strategy for different reasons, mainly associated with resources. If one thinks about successful business and government practices, the decision making effort outcomes generally result in products and services that work best, cost least, and last longest. The consumer mindset also uses this simple and natural process for decision making in buying. The business leader who is successful uses this variable for short- and long-term investment decisions, and the public manager focuses on enduring and successful public services, which utilize public funding in a prudent and wise fashion. Another public example is the government buying process when services and products are purchased though a competitive vetting process where needs, values, and timely delivery are critical components of the purchasing decision model. Efficacy also applies to students who compare colleges that provide the best benefits for the best dollar value, or student-teacher ratio, or where most of their friends attend. Utilitarianism is the ideal ethical theory for democracy because the majority decides what is best. Putting things to a vote means the strongest side wins.

Reading Assignment Public Administration Ethics for the 21st Century: Chapter 2: Contemporary Literature Affecting Administrative Ethics Managing in the Public Sector: Chapter 11: Challenges in Nonprofit Management, Case 61: Ghost Worker at the Nonprofit Chapter 6: Planning and Economic Development, Case 34: Complimentary Soda Drinks for Bus Drivers

Suggested Further Reading See information below.

Learning Activities (Non-Graded) See information below.

Key Terms

1. Deontological ethics 2. Epistemology 3. Pragmatism 4. Utilitarianism

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Deontology: Decisions based on principles: Principled public administrators use deontology theory. The principles or rules referenced could be derived from the organization itself. These types of rules (or laws) could also be interpreted as obligatory, thus public managers would have to be knowledgeable on how to apply these sets of principles to actual scenarios. Immanuel Kant, an 18th century German Philosopher, provided a foundation for Deontology that states, “one should act only as if one were legislating a universal law for everyone to follow in a preferred world.” Two overriding principles that Kant focuses on are that mankind should not lie, and as a means to an end—individuals should not be influenced unequally. Another well-known philosopher, John Rawls wrote in 1985, Justice is Fairness. In his writings, he stated two overriding principles that should provide justification for rational calculations: Rawls (1985) summarized the following:

First Principle: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberty compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.

Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged. (p. 223)

Ontology: The study of being: The term “being” pertains to the public administrator’s decision-making properties or references of physical objects, classes of human beings, properties, or relations to objects, space and or time, or events. The study of Ontology deals with inquiry related to groups and their relations with similar entities. What concepts should public managers use when making ethical decisions based on Ontology? The answer references and includes the state of affairs or relationships with the properties previously stated. Epistemology: The study of knowledge: The method or process (study of knowledge) that is used for research is defined from two distinct parameters. The first parameter is positivism meaning the purpose of research is performed for scientific explanation. The technique utilizes deductive logic (from previously known facts) and empirical observations. Thus predicting human patterns. The second parameter is interpretivism where qualitative research is primarily used. The primary research tools are observed by participants’ experiences and interactions with social systems—usually not generalized to a population. Together, both research and decision- making processes that encompass epistemology are not curtailed by drawn boundaries. It is important to understand that public administrators may or may not use boundaries to interpret and make decisions based on constructed limitations. In the real world these limitations can be called reason or common experience. Examples may include political or religious beliefs. Should the Public administrator view these attitudes as restraints? Approaches to decision-making focus on several variables that are committed to successful utility. These are:

Obligations/duty—Public servant fiduciary trust

Virtue—Honest and Integrity

Principles—Rights of individuals

Benefits to society—Best for community The conclusions and examinations of decision-making theories are not reviewed to confuse or muddy the waters of administrating, but should broaden perspectives and self-awareness of ethical theories. One theory or another is

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certainly never the ultimate answer when making public decisions, the hope is that the administrator can glean different ways of providing possible resolutions after reviewing the pros and cons; thus benefiting all stakeholders by promoting the very best alternatives.

References Martinez, J. M. (2009). Public administration ethics for the 21st century (1st ed.).

Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. Rawls, J. (1985). Justice as fairness: Political not metaphysical. Philosophy and

Public Affairs, 14, 223-251.

Suggested Further Reading Svara, J. H. (2001). The myth of the dichotomy: Complementary of politics

and administration in the past and future of public administration, Public Administration Review, 61:p. 176-183.

Learning Activities (Non-Graded) After you finish with the material in Unit II, reflect on your experience and write about it. What did you learn? What did not quite make sense? Can you apply the concepts you learned toward your career? How? The purpose of this assignment is to provide you with the opportunity to reflect on the material you learned and to expand upon those thoughts. This is not a summary. A reflection journal is an opportunity for you to express your thoughts about the material by writing about them. Reflection writing is a great way to study because it increases your ability to remember the course material. Use these guidelines as you reflect on the course material:

1. Write at least one page 2. Include your thoughts about the course topics. 3. Include your thoughts about the case studies. 4. What did you learn? 5. What did not quite make sense? 6. What would you like to learn more about? 7. How will the material assist you in achieving further academic goals? 8. How will the material assist you in achieving further career goals? 9. Include your strategies for capitalizing on your strengths and overcoming

your weaknesses. Format your reflection paper using APA Style. Use your own words and include citations for other articles as needed to avoid plagiarism. If you are feeling creative, try creating a reflection blog. Once you have completed the course you will be able to revisit the knowledge you gained in the course. Non-graded learning activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. This is a non-graded activity, so you do not have to submit it.