centennial of the discovery of radioactivity · an invisible, penetrating radiation emitted...

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1896- 1898 1996-1998 CENTENNIAL of the DISCOVERY of RADIOACTIVITY "La radioactivité n'a pas été inventée par l'homme, c'est un phénomène naturel." A discovery which changed everything Site's pictures Events and publications of the Centennial Discovered a hundred years ago Calendar What is radioactivity Organisms and committees As old as the world... Bibliography Indispensable today The book of the centennial Doses, effects and radiation protection Radioactivity is also... Centennial of the discovery of radioactivity http://www.ccr.jussieu.fr/radioactivite/english/accueil.htm [11/21/2002 3:23:31 PM]

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Page 1: Centennial of the discovery of radioactivity · an invisible, penetrating radiation emitted spontaneously by Uranium. He showed that these "uranic rays" made an imprint on photographic

1896- 1898

1996-1998

CENTENNIALof the DISCOVERYof RADIOACTIVITY

"La radioactivité n'a pas été inventée par l'homme, c'est un phénomène naturel."

A discovery whichchanged everything

Site'spictures

Events and publicationsof the Centennial

Discovered a hundred years ago Calendar

What is radioactivity Organisms and committees

As old as the world... Bibliography

Indispensable today The book of the centennial

Doses, effects and radiation protection

Radioactivity is also...

Centennial of the discovery of radioactivity

http://www.ccr.jussieu.fr/radioactivite/english/accueil.htm [11/21/2002 3:23:31 PM]

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Discovered a hundred years ago...

The discovery of natural radioactivity caused averitable revolution in scientific thought and anupheaval in the understanding of the Universe and inthe evolution of knowledge. Owing to its manyapplications, this extraordinary discovery has alsostrongly influenced the history of human society andthe life of mankind.

In March 1896, HenriBecquerel discoveredan invisible, penetratingradiation emittedspontaneously byUranium. He showedthat these "uranicrays" made an imprinton photographic platesand made air conductelectricity.

HenriBECQUEREL(Paris 1852 - LeCroisic 1908)

Professor of Physics atthe French NaturalHistory Museum inParis and at the EcolePolytechnique, HenriBecquerel was a

specialist in phenomena related to the polarisation oflight and, like his father Edmond Becquerel - inprocesses involving the luminescence of materials. Theyear after completing his Doctoral thesis in 1888, hewas elected to the Academy of Sciences.

Discovered a hundred years ago.

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Pierre and Marie Curiediscovered two otherelements that emittedsimilar radiations. Theybaptised the firstPolonium in July 1898and the second Radium inDecember of the sameyear. Pierre and MarieCurie characterised thephenomenon thatproduces these radiationsand called it"radioactivity". Theydiscovered that a givenmass of radium, which isthe most active of all the"radioelements", emits 1.4million times moreradiation than the samemass of uranium.

Pierre CURIE (Paris1859 - Paris 1906)

Professor at the ESPCI, theSchool of IndustrialPhysics and Chemistry inParis, Pierre Curie wasalready known for his workon piezoelectricity (withhis brother Jacques),

symmetry and magnetism when he married MariaSklodowska in 1895. In 1898, he abandoned hisresearch on crystals to join forces with his wife. In1904, Pierre Curie was appointed Professor at theScience Faculty in Paris and he was admitted to theFrench Academy of Sciences in 1905. One yearlater, he met a tragic death in a Paris street, runover by a horse-drawn cart.

MarieCURIE-SKLODOWSKA(Warsaw 1867 -Sallanches 1934)

Since Universityadmission was barred towomen in Poland, MarieSklodowska arrived in1891 to study at theUniversity of Paris. Afterher marriage, Marie Curieworked on a Doctorate inscience on the

"mysterious" radiation discovered by HenriBecquerel. After the death of her husband, shebecame the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne.Continuing her research by herself, she succeededin bringing about the creation of the Institute ofRadium and, during World War I, set up aradiology service on the Front. In 1934 shesuccumbed to leukemia, brought on by her work.

For their discoveries, Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie and Pierre Curiewere jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903.

In 1902, in Montreal, two British physicists, Ernest Rutherford andFrederick Soddy, showed that, in radioactivity, the emission ofradiation is accompanied by a spontaneous transformation of onechemical element into another.

Discovered a hundred years ago.

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So the atom was neither unalterable nor indivisible!

It remained to be shown whether Radium was indeed a chemicalelement like another. This Marie Curie did, by isolating it from severaltons of minerals, and determining its atomic " weight ". In 1911,following this extenuating work, she received a second Nobel Prize, inChemistry this time.

The discovery of radioactivity was a determining factor for thedevelopment of all scientific disciplines in the twentieth century, fromnuclear physics, which it initiated, as well as radiochemistry and, lateron, particle physics, to biology, the Earth sciences, and astrophysics.

Discovered a hundred years ago.

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What is radioactivity?

The atoms making up matter are generally stable, but some of them arespontaneously transformed by emitting radiations which release energy. Thisis called radioactivity.

Atoms

In nature,matter -whetherwater, gas,rocks, livingbeings -consists ofmolecules,which arecombinationsof atoms.Atomsinclude apositivelychargednucleus,around whichmovenegativelychargedelectrons.The atom isneutral.

The structure of matter

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The nucleusof the atomincludespositivelychargedprotons aswell asneutrons. It isthis nucleusthat istransformedwhen aradiation isemitted byradioactivity.

Protons andneutrons are,in turn,composed ofquarks.

Isotopes

All atoms with nuclei having the same number of protons form a chemicalelement. Having the same number of protons, they have the same number ofelectrons, hence the same chemical properties. When they have differentnumbers of neutrons, they are called "isotopes". Each isotope of a givenelement is designated by the total number of its nucleons, i.e. protons plusneutrons.

For instance, Uranium-238 and Uranium-235 both have 92 electrons. Theirnuclei have 92 protons. Isotope 238 has 146 neutrons, and Uranium-235 has 143neutrons.

What is radioactivity ?

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Radiations fromradioactivity

There are three types ofradiations corresponding tothree types of radioactivity.

alpha radioactivitycorresponds to the emission ofa helium nucleus, aparticularly stable structureconsisting of two protons andtwo neutrons, called an aparticle.

beta radioactivitycorresponds to thetransformation, in the nucleus:

- either of a neutron into aproton, beta- radioactivity,characterised by the emissionof an electron e-

- or of a proton into a neutron,beta+ radioactivity,characterised by the emissionof an anti-electron or positrone+. It only appears in artificialradioactive nuclei producedby nuclear reactions.

gamma radioactivity, unlikethe other two, is not related toa transmutation of thenucleus. It results in theemission, by the nucleus, ofan electromagnetic radiation,

THE various types of radioactivity

What is radioactivity ?

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like visible light or X-rays,but more energetic.

gamma radioactivity canoccur by itself or togetherwith alpha or betaradioactivity.

What is radioactivity ?

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As old as the world...

Natural radioactivity has been part of the Universe sinceits creation. It is found on Earth, within matter and evenin living beings. The radiations emitted are invisible, butcan be measured with high sensitivity and precision.

Invisible but perfectly measurable

Since thebeginning of theUniverse,probably somefifteen thousandmillion yearsago, radioactiveatoms have beendisintegrating.Most of themhave disappeared,yielding stableatoms. However,some of them arestill radioactive,sometimes forthousands ofmillions of yearsto come,pursuing series of

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transformationswhich shouldbring them tofinal stability.Others arecreated daily.This is why,since the dawn oftime, the Earth,all living beingsand everythingaround them, areradioactive.Naturalradioactivity isalso presentinside the humanbody, as the foodand water weabsorb, the air webreathe containnaturallyradioactiveatoms. Thisradioactivity allaround us can bemeasured, bymeans of specificinstruments(radiationcounters), withgreat precision,high sensitivityand good spatialresolution.

Ionising radiations

A radiation is said to be ionising when it has enough energy to eject one ormore electrons from the atoms or molecules in the irradiated medium. Thisis the case of a and b radiations, as well as of electromagnetic radiationssuch as g radiations, X-rays and some ultra-violet rays. Visible or infraredlight are not, nor are microwaves or radio waves.

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Activityone litre of milk: ~ 60 Bq●

a 5-year old child: ~ 600 Bq an adult weighing70 kg: ~ 10,000 Bq

one ton of granite: 7 to 8 million Bq one gram ofradium: 37 thousand million Bq

When one nucleus is transformed intoanother nucleus by radioactive emission, itis said to disintegrate or decay. Theactivity of a radioactive body is thenumber of disintegrations of its atoms inone second. It is measured in becquerels.One becquerel corresponds to thedisintegration of one atomic nucleus persecond. This is a very small unit ofmeasure.

Radioactive half-life

Activity, Time

As unstable atoms are transformed, theradioactivity of a substance decreases. The timerequired for this activity to decrease by half iscalled half-life. This half-life is characteristic ofeach radioactive isotope. It may range from afew fractions of a second to several thousandmillion years, depending on the isotope. Naturethus provides several hundred radioactiveisotopes which constitute as many calibratedclocks.

Examples: Polonium-214 (0.164 second),Oxygen-15 (2 minutes), Iodine-131 (8 days),Cobalt-60 (5.3 years), Carbon-14 (5730 years),Plutonium-239 (24110 years), Uranium-238(4.5 thousand million years).

Natural or artificial

Artificial or man-made radioactivity is a phenomenon of the same type asnatural radioactivity, but for which the emitting nuclei are produced in thelaboratory or in reactors.

The discovery of artificial radioactivity

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In January 1934, Irène Curie and FrédéricJoliot discovered artificial radioactivity. Bybombarding a sheet of Aluminium-27 with aparticles, they observed the creation of a newradioactive isotope, or radioisotope,

Phosphorus-30. They received the NobelPrize in Chemistry for this discovery.

This experiment showed that, by bombarding stable nuclei, it is possible tofabricate radioisotopes that do not exist in nature. Today, it is known how tocreate hundreds of artificial radioisotopes for a broad range of uses.

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Indispensable today...

Today, the applications of radioactivity are constantly growing in number,and especially in chemistry, biology, medicine, archeology, sciences of theEarth and the Universe, the food industry, etc. The energy contained innuclei is used to produce electricity.

Going back in time: dating

Dating methods arebased on theprogressive decay, inwell defined timeperiods, of theradioactivity ofisotopes contained inthe remains to bedated. Carbon-14 inparticular is used todetermine the age ofobjects less than50,000 years old.

Other dating methodsusing combinations ofdifferent isotopesallow an age to beattributed to the eventsthat describe thehistory of the Earth, itsclimate and the livingbeings that have

Principle of 14C-dating.

The carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere contains stableCarbon-12 and a very small percentage of radioactive Carbon-14,with a half-life of 5730 years, continually being formed by cosmicrays. The carbon dioxide is continually exchanged between theatmosphere and the living world (breathing, photosynthesis).

Once a living organism dies, its Carbon-14 is no longer renewed. Asthis isotope decays, its percentage with respect to Carbon-12decreases, thus constituting a time clock. The less Carbon-14remaining, the older the sample to be dated is.

Painting in the Cosquer cave dated back 27,000 years.

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inhabited it up to now.

Isotopic labelling in biology and medicine

The different isotopes of anelement have the samechemical properties.Replacing one by anotherin a molecule thereforedoes not change themolecule's function.However, the radiationemitted makes it possible todetect it, localise it, followits movement and even tomeasure its concentrationwithout intervention.Isotopic labelling has thusallowed the study of thefunctioning of the livingbody, from individual cellsto the entire organism,without disturbing it.

Radioactive isotopes areused in nuclear medicine,especially in medicalimaging, to study the waymedication works,understand the working ofthe brain, detect a cardiacdisorder, track downcancerous metastases, etc.

In biology,

A large number of breakthroughs during the second half of thetwentieth century are linked to the use of radioactivity:functioning of the genome (the backbone of heredity), themetabolism of cells, photosynthesis, transmission of chemicalmessages (hormones, neuromediators) in the body.

Computer-generated image of a insulin molecule.

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Radiations and radiotherapy

Ionising radiations maypreferentially destroy tumourcells and provide an efficienttreatment for cancer. This isradiotherapy. This was one ofthe first uses of radioactivityfollowing its discovery.

In France, 40 to 50% ofcancers are treated byradiotherapy, often associatedwith chemotherapy or surgery.Thus, radioactivity cures alarge number of people everyyear.

The various forms of radiotherapyCurietherapy uses small radioactive sources (platinum -iridium wires, granules of caesium) placed next to thetumour.

Teleradiotherapy consists in concentrating the radiationemitted by an external source onto the tumour cells.

Immunoradiotherapy uses radiolabelled carriers whoseantibodies specifically recognize the tumour cells ontowhich they attach themselves to destroy them.

Nuclear energy

After havingunderstood whatnatural radioactivityis and havingobserved the highlycomplex structuresof nuclei, physicistsendeavoured tounderstand wheretheir high cohesionand density camefrom.

The study of theconsiderable forces

Fission

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involved showedthat a very largeamount of energycould be drawn fromthem. Just as thebonding of atoms inmolecules is thesource of chemicalenergy, the bondingof protons andneutrons by nuclearforces is the sourceof nuclear energy, byfar the mostconcentrated. It caneffectively bereleased by fissionor fusion.

A heavy nucleus is said toundergo fission if it breaksup, either spontaneously orbecause provoked to do so,into two or more lighternuclei and a few neutrons.These neutrons can, in turn,induce other fissions, andso forth in a chain reactionwhich releases a largeamount of energy. Innuclear power stations, thechain reaction is controlled,i.e. it cannot get out ofhand. In fission atomicbombs, or A bombs, on thecontrary, the idea is toamplify this effect.

Fission energy

The total mass of thefission products and neutrons emitted is smaller than the mass of theinitial nucleus. The mass difference or mass defect has beentransformed into energy according to Einstein's famous equation E =mc2 . The fission of all the nuclei of one kilogram of Uranium-235thus produces as much energy as the burning of 2,500 tons of coal!

Fusion

Two nuclei of lightisotopes (isotopes ofhydrogen for instance)can release a largeamount of energy byfusing into a heaviernucleus such as helium,.The fusion reactionoccurs at a very hightemperature, around 200million degrees Celsius.This is why fusion is saidto be a thermonuclear reaction. Such reactions occur in the Sun andstars. They were used in the H bomb (hydrogen bomb).

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Fusion energy

In a fusion reaction, the mass of the final nucleus is lower than thesum of the masses of the two initial nuclei. This mass defect, relativeto the same number of nucleons, provides a release of energy stillhigher than that given by a fission reaction. The fusion of all thenuclei of one kilogram of a mixture of deuterium and tritium wouldproduce as much energy as the burning of 10,000 tons of coal!

Controlled fusion

Physicists are endeavouring to control the fusion reaction which couldprovide a new source of energy in the future. Controlledthermonuclear fusion is so important for humanity that it is the subjectof the only research programme bringing together all the countriesthat have achieved a high level of scientific and technicaldevelopment: the ITER project (International ThermonuclearExperimental Reactor). The photograph represents the inside of thetoroidal chamber of the superconductor system "Tore supra", built inCadarache (CEA) in the framework of the EURATOM programme tostudy controlled fusion by magnetic confinement.

Production of electricity

Fission chainreactions ofUranium are usedin nuclear powerstations whichproduce morethan 75% of theelectricity inFrance.

Nuclear fuelcycle Radioactive waste management

Radioactive wastes are classified according to two criteria:

their activity level, i.e. the intensity of the emitted radiations which●

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In a reactor, thefission ofUranium-235results in theformation ofradioactive nucleicalled fissionproducts. Thecapture ofneutrons byUranium-238produces a smallamount ofPlutonium-239,which can alsosupply energy byfission.

Only a small partof the fuel placedin a reactor isburnt by fission ofnuclei. Theunburnt fuel andthe plutoniumproduced arerecovered andthen recycled toproduce electricityagain. The otherelements, formedduring thereaction, aresorted into threetypes of wastesaccording to theirradioactivity, in

conditions the protections to be used,

their radioactive half-life, which defines the duration of theirpotential toxicity.

Low and medium activity short-lived wastes represent 90% of theradioactive wastes produced in France, and they lose almost allradioactivity in less than 300 years. They are conditioned so as to reducetheir volume as much as possible and placed in steel or concrete containersin which their radioactivity is well confined. Then they are stored on thesurface.

Long-lived and/or high level wastes represent only 10% of theradioactive wastes, but their decay spans thousands of years. They areincorporated into glass. A law passed in 1991 fixed a time scale for thestudy of the future handling of long-lived and short-lived wastes in France.One of the options considered is disposal in deep geological formations,where their evolution will be monitored. Pending decision, they areconditioned and temporarily stored on the surface, in La Hague orMarcoule, in very safe conditions.

Fission reactors

In pressurised water reactors (PWR), the most widely used today, theenergy originates from the fission reactions of Uranium-235. Thepressurised water of the primary circuit serves both to slow down theneutrons and to evacuate the heat from the core. This heat generates watervapour in the secondary circuit. This water vapour, under pressure,activates a turbine which drives the shaft of an alternator, which in turngenerates electricity.

In fast neutron reactors, Uranium-238, which represents 99.3% of naturalUranium, is also used as fuel.

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order to beconditioned andthen stored.

Nuclear safety

The use of thefantastic source ofenergy containedin the nucleus ofatoms commandsstringentcompliance with aset of nuclearsafety regulationsto ensure theproper operationof nuclear powerstations and theprotection of thepopulation.

Nuclear Wastes

All humanactivities producewastes. Thenuclear industry isno exception. Onthe average,France produces,per year and perinhabitant

5,000 kg ofwastes, amongwhich

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100 kg oftoxic wastesincluding

1 kg ofnuclearwastes, and

5g of highlevel activitywastes.

We do not yetknow how todestroyindustriallyradioactivewastes. Theydecay naturallywith time, more orless rapidlydepending ontheir half-life.Consequently,confinement andstorage techniquesare called upon.

Reduction in thevolume andactivity ofradioactive wastesis a high priorityresearch goal inFrance. The studyof the long termbehaviour ofwaste packages is

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also a major lineof research.

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Doses, effects and radiation protection

More than two-thirds of the dose of ionising radiations received in France onthe average correspond to natural radioactivity and one quarter to medicalirradiation (mainly X-rays).

Man is exposed to various types of ionising radiations which produceapproximately the same effects, but are of different origins. Exposure to theseradiations may be voluntary (sunbathing, medical examinations), or involuntary.

Ionising radiations

NATURALORIGIN

Ultraviolet rays (UV) from the sun

Cosmic rays:

Accelerated particles in space●

Radioactivity from space●

Natural radioactivity of the Earth andthe atmosphere

NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

Man-made radioactivity of an industrialorigin

Radioactivity for medical usage :

scintigraphy,gamma-camera, positroncamera, radiotherapy usingradioactive sources

MAN-MADERADIOACTIVITY

MAN-MADEORIGIN

X-rays for medical usage:

X-rays and scanner,radiotherapy by X-rays

Particle beams for radiotherapy

To know the effects of ionising radiations, the type and intensity of the emitted radiation, on one hand,and the sensitivity of the irradiated medium, on the other, must be known.

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The gray (Gy) and the milligray (mGy) are units of measure for the amount of energy transferred by theradiation to each kilogram of matter it goes through (units used particularly in radiotherapy).

The sievert (Sv) and the millisievert (mSv) are units of measure for the amount of radiation or dose towhich a living medium is exposed, taking into account the type of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) and thenature of the tissues concerned (unit used particularly in radiation protection).

Annual doses*

On the average, the dose of ionising radiationsreceived in France is about 3.5 millisievert perinhabitant per year.

Average annual natural exposure: 2.4 mSvper inhabitant:

in France, cosmic rays from space andespecially the Sun represent received dosesof about 0.4 millisievert (mSv) per year atsea level, which doubles at 1,500 m inelevation (one round-trip Paris-New Yorkcorresponds to a received dose of 0.06mSv);

the radioactive elements contained in theground, and mainly Uranium, Thoriumand Potassium, result on the average inFrance in irradiations of 0.4 mSv per year,highly variable depending on the type ofsoil;

the radioactive elements absorbed bybreathing or eating, such as Radon-222,which is a natural gas from the decay of theuranium contained in the soil, and the mainsource of natural irradiation, or thepotassium in food, a part of which becomes

* source : UNSCEAR

" United Nations ScientificCommittee on the Effects of AtomicRadiations "

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fixed in our body causing an averageirradiation of about 1.6 mSv per year.

Average annual artificial exposure: 1.1 mSvper inhabitant

exposures of a medical origin representan average dose of about 1 mSv, mainlydue to X-ray examinations, very unevenlydistributed over the population.

industrial activities represent an averagedose of about 0.1 mSv, including 0.02 mSvfor nuclear energy.

Effects of radiations

Depending on the dose and the type ofradiation received, the effects may bemore or less harmful for the health. Twoapproaches are used to study their variousbiological effects: epidemiology andexperimentation on living cells.

Effects of doses received byhomogeneous irradiation of the wholebody*

from 0 to 250 mGray: no biological ormedical effect, immediate or long-term, hasbeen observed in children or adults. This isthe domain of low doses.

from 250 to 1000 mGray: some nauseamay appear along with a slight decrease inthe number of white blood cells.

from 1000 to 2500 mGray: vomiting,change in the blood count, but satisfactoryrecovery or complete cure assured.

from 2500 to 5000 mGray: consequenceson health become serious; hospitalisation ismandatory; a dose of 5,000 mSv receivedall at once is lethal for one out of twopeople.

more than 5000 mGray: death is almostcertain.

Note that for doses higher than 250 mGray,long-term effects (risk of cancer increasing with

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the dose) have also been observed

* This table refers to doses absorbed at one time byhomogeneous irradiation of the whole body. In this case,the Gray is equivalent to the Sievert for X, g and bradiations and to 25 Sv for a radiation. Cumulative dosesmuch higher than 5 Gray are used on a part of the body inradiotherapy (60 to 80 Gray). They are administeredlocally by 2 to 3-Gray sessions four or five times a week.

Radiation Protection

The radiations from radioactivity are, at high doses, a danger for man. It isimportant to be protected from them. This is the purpose of radiation protection.Since the penetrating power of the various radiations is different, radiationprotection techniques must be specifically adapted to each one.

alpha radiation can be stopped by the air or by a sheet of paper. aemitters are most dangerous through inhalation or absorption. It isespecially necessary to be protected from contamination by aradioactive product containing this type of emitter.

beta radiation can be stopped by aluminium foil or a plate ofglass.

gamma radiation can be attenuated or stopped only by significantthicknesses of lead or concrete. This is why the radioactive spacesof nuclear facilities (particle accelerators and nuclear powerstations) are enclosed in thick concrete walls.

Radiation protection includes all measures designed to protect the health of thepopulation and those persons working in various areas where ionising radiationsare handled: laboratories, hospitals, nuclear industry, etc.

Since 1928, the regulations set up in each country have been based on therecommendations of the International Commission for Radiological Protection(ICRP) which is an independent scientific authority recognized the world over.

Doses, effects and radiation protection

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Doses, effects and radiation protection

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Radioactivity is also...

· sterilisation

Irradiation is an excellent way to cold-destroy micro-organisms: fungus, bacteria, virus, etc.,consequently there are many applications for the sterilisation of objects, particularly for medico-surgicalequipment.

· protecting works of art

A gamma-ray treatment eliminates fungus, larvae, insects or bacteria present within objects therebyprotecting them from further deterioration. This technique is used in conserving and restoring works ofart as well as in ethnology and archaeology.

· production of materials

Under proper conditions, irradiation triggers chemical reactions which allow the development of lighterand more resistant materials, such as insulation, electric cables, heat shrinking sheaths, prostheses, etc.

· industrial X or g radiography

This consists in recording the image of the disturbance of an X or g ray beam caused by an object to bechecked. It allows defects, in welds for instance, to be detected without destroying the material.

· leakage detectors and level gauges

Introducing a radionuclide into a circuit allows the displacements of a fluid to be followed, and leakageon dams or underground pipes to be detected.

The level of a liquid in a tank, the thickness of sheet metal or cardboard being fabricated, the density of achemical compound in a tank... can be obtained using radioactive gauges.

· fire detectors

A small radioactive source ionises the atoms of oxygen and nitrogen contained in a small volume of air.The arrival of smoke particles changes this ionisation. Radioactive detectors sensitive to very smallamounts of smoke are thus manufactured and are widely used in stores, plants, offices, etc.

Radioactivity is also.

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· luminescent paints

Luminescent paints are the oldest applications of radioactivity, for reading clock dials and on-boardinstruments in night navigation.

· powering satellites

Power supplies working by means of small radioactive sources of Plutonium-239, Cobalt-60 orStrontium-90, are installed in satellites to supply them with electricity. They are very small in size andcan operate for several years without maintenance.

Radioactivity is also.

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Conférences, expositions, des dates à retenir

Durant trois années, la célébration du Centenaire de la découverte de laradioactivité est jalonnée de très nombreuses actions et manifestations organiséesà l'échelle régionale, nationale et internationale.

Commémorations

Expositions

Colloques scientifiques

Actions pédagogiques

Médias

Le Centenaire danstoute la France

Le programmeinternational

Commémorations17 nov. 1998Paris - Académiedes sciences

Cérémonie solennelle, sous la Coupole, commémorant le Centenaire de ladécouverte du radium , clôture officielle de la célébration.

30 sept. 1998Paris -Grandamphithéâtre dela Sorbonne

Commémoration solennelle de la découverte de la radioactivité, dupolonium et du radium,placée sous le haut-patronage et avec une allocution de Monsieur Jacques Chirac,Président de la République,en partenariat avec le Rectorat de l'Académie, Chancellerie des universités deParis,en présence de Messieurs Georges Charpak (prix Nobel de physique), ClaudeCohen-Tannoudji (prix Nobel de physique), Peter Armbruster (professeur àla Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung), et Maurice Tubiana (membrede l'Académie des Sciences et de l'Académie de Médecine).

23 janvier1996Paris - Académienationale demédecine

Séance commémorative « Le centenaire de la découverte des rayons X et dela radioactivité Roentgen et Becquerel»

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Expositionsnov.1997 - avril1998Paris - Palais de laDécouverte

Le Palais de la Découverte a choisi 1997 pourconsacrer à la radioactivité une grandeexposition .Cette exposition a reçu le soutien d’EDF, du CEA, de laCOGEMA et de FRAMATOME.

expositionpermanenteParis - Musée Curie

Le Musée Curie rénové pour son 75 èmeanniversaire. Visites guidées, illustrations, anciensinstruments de mesure, retracent les débuts de l'histoire de laradioactivité.

11 sept. 98 - 31déc. 98Galerie deminéralogieMuséum nationald'histoire naturelle

L'Institut Curie propose une exposition sur lespremières applications médicales de laradioactivité et des rayons X (1895- 1930) ,

intitulée «les rayons de la vie».

1996 à 1998A travers la France

Exposition itinérante de la SFEN sur laradioactivité, de Becquerel, Pierre et MarieCurie jusqu'à nos jours . (Inaugurée au printemps 1996

à Paris : album photos)

juin 1996 àavril 1998Paris - Muséumnationald'histoire naturelle

Exposition « La Radioactivité, c'est naturel »

30 janvier 1997 : Réflexion centrée autour detrois films : Becquerel et la radioactivité

novembre 1996à 1998A travers la France

Exposition de 20 panneaux :"RADIOACTIVITE : QUAND LES ATOMESRAYONNENT"

expositionpermanenteChâtillon-Coligny

Exposition sur Becquerel au Musée de l'AncienHôtel Dieu de Châtillon-Coligny, 2 sallesconsacrées à la famille Becquerel

à partir deSeptembre1997Marseille

Trois expositions à Marseille

16 sep.-16nov1997Nantes

Exposition « Radioactivité et nucléaire,Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité»au Muséum d’histoire naturelle

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Colloques et conférences scientifiques18-20 novembre1998La Villette, Paris

Colloque " Risque et Société ", à la Cité des Sciences et de l'Industriede la Villette.

23-24 octobre1998Brest

Les Entretiens Scientifiques 98 - pour la deuxième année -Science et Ethique ou le devoir de parole : "Risques biologiques ettechnologiques : éthique de la décision".

31 août - 4 sept.1998Besançon

19e Conférence Internationale sur les traces nucléaires dans lessolides.Laboratoire de Microanalyse Nucléaire de l'Université de Franche-Comté, à Besançon.

24-28 août 1998UNESCO, Paris

Conférence Internationale de Physique Nucléaire (INPC 98), qui alieu tous les trois ans, et chaque fois dans un pays différent.Organisée par le CEA, le CNRS et l'IUPAP

14-19 juin 1998Caen

15e Conférence Internationale sur les Cyclotrons est ouverte àtous les ingénieurs, physiciens, médecins, biologistes et industriels detoutes les nationalités.(250 participants en provenance d’une trentaine de pays).

3-5 juin 1998Dijon

37e Congrès de la Société Française des Physiciens d'Hôpital

14-16 mai 1998Paris- Académie desSciences

Colloque « Riques cancérogènes dus aux rayonnements ionisants.Mécanismes, relations dose-effet, progrès récents ».

13 mai 1998Paris

4e rencontre «Physique et Interrogations fondamentales : symétries etbrisures de symétrie »,organisée par G. Cohen-Tannoudji pour la Société Française de Physique.

29 - 30 avril 1998Université Pierre etMarie Curie - Paris

Journées franco-polonaises "Pierre et Marie Curie", comprenant lejumelage entre le Musée Curie de Paris et le Musée Sklodowska-Curiede Varsovie.

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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23- 24 avril 1998Paris - UNESCO L’UNESCO a inscrit le Centenaire de la découverte du polonium

et du radium au nombre de ses célébrations officielles pour 1998.Rencontre internationale les 23 et 24 avril 1998 à l’UNESCO :« Les scientifiques du futur : des femmes et des hommes».La médaille « Marie Curie » a été remise à la cosmonaute française ClaudieAndré-Deshays, à Geneviève Fraisse, déléguée interministérielle aux droits des femmes etdirecteur de recherche au CNRS, et à René Bimbot, secrétaire général du Haut Comiténational français pour le centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité.

7-10 juillet 1997Société Françaisede PhysiqueParis - Sorbonne

CONGRES de la Société Française de PhysiqueAu programme : des conférences plénières, des colloques, des expositions, des visites delaboratoires.....

22 janvier 1997Sociéte Française dePhysiqueParis

3ème RENCONTRE "Physique et Interrogations Fondamentales"

16-18 octobre1996LilleGrand Palais

XXVe colloque de médecine nucléaire de langue française

7-11 octobre1996Cherbourg Octeville

Symposium international sur les « Radionucléides dans les océans »

9-13 septembre1996Beaumont-HagueCogema

Sixième conférence internationale sur les « Mesures à bas niveaudes actinides et des radionucléides à vie longue dans les milieuxbiologiques et dans l'environnement »

8-13 septembre1996Saint-Malo

4e conférence internationale de chimie nucléaire et de radiochimie(NCR4)

2-4 septembre1996Montpellier

27e Congrès de la Société européenne de radiobiologie

8-12 juin 1996Château de Blois

VIIIe Rencontres de Blois sur « Les neutrinos, la matière sombreet l'univers »

30-31 mai 1996Paris- Palais duLuxembourg

Colloque« Atome et Société. Science, politique et opinion publique »

24-25 avril 1996Grenoble- Musée depeinture

« les rayonnements ionisants en médecine et dans l'Industrie :réalisations et perspectives »

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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19-24 mai 1996Orléans

Journées d'études de chimie sous rayonnement (JECR 96) sur «l'interaction des rayonnements ionisants avec la matière »

24-25 avril 1996Grenoble- Musée depeinture

« les rayonnements ionisants en médecine et dans l'Industrie :réalisations et perspectives »

14-15 mars 1996Paris- Palais duLuxembourg

«Les avancées de la radiologie médicale Paris et ses contraintes.Progrès en radioprotection et en dosimétrie »

Actions pédagogiques

1996à 1998A traversla France

L'organisation des conférences :

Le Haut Comité National soutient l’organisationde conférences dans les lycées, collèges,universités, centres de culture scientifique ettechnique, mairies, hôpitaux, entreprises... Avecl'appui de la Société Française de Physique etl’Union des Physiciens, cette action a pour butde mieux faire connaître au public l’oeuvre deHenri Becquerel, Pierre et Marie Curie etl’impact de leurs découvertes sur l’approcheconceptuelle de la physique, sur ledéveloppement des autres sciences, sur certainestechnologies, et finalement sur notre viequotidienne.

350 conférenciers (biologistes, chimistes,géologues, historiens, médecins, physiciens,...)donneront des conférences pendant ces troisannées sur l’ensemble du territoire français.

Ces conférences pourront faire l’objet dedémonstrations relatives à la détection de laradioactivité, grâce au matériel contenu dans lavalise pédagogique Becquerel-Curie.

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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juin1997à traversla France

La brochure « Radioactivité » :

Éditée en juin 1997, la brochure « Radioactivité» est venue couronner l’ensemble de laproduction de matériel pédagogique duCentenaire. Cette plaquette de trente pagesrassemble les informations essentiellesconcernant la radioactivité et l’ensemble de sesapplications.

Elle est agréablement illustrée dans un stylerappelant celui de l’exposition de 20 postersdont elle constitue aussi le documentd’accompagnement. Elle a été tirée à 100 000exemplaires en français et mise à la dispositiond’enseignants, de documentalistes et desCentres régionaux de documentationpédagogique.

Des versions en anglais et en espagnol de cedocument ont également pu être tirées à 25 000exemplaires chacune, grâce au soutien duministère des Affaires étrangères. Des encartsen arabe et en chinois sont prévus et une versionjaponaise est envisagée.

La version française de la brochure sera diffuséeà tous les enseignants de physique, chimie,biologie et géologie des lycées et collègesfrançais.

Médias

28 avril 1998surLa Cinquième

Diffusion du film documentaire "Surprises de la matière"(52 minutes)Auteurs : Jeanne Laberrigue-Frolow, François Christophe et Jean Druon.Réalisation : François Christoph,.Coproduction : Culture Production, La Cinquième, CNRS Audiovisuel.

27 au 30 janvier199719h30 - 20h00surFrance-Culture

Le magazine Perspectives scientifiques donne l'actualité desRencontres "Physique et interrogations fondamentales"Par Michel Cazenave.

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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25 sept. 1997chaîne câbléeParis Première

Le magazine Le canal du savoir traite de "Radioactivité : lerayonnement d'une découverte"par René Bimbot

Dossierhors-sériePour La Scienceoctobre 1996

Le magazine scientifique "Pour La Science" propose un dossierhors-série intitulé"NOYAUX ATOMIQUES ET RADIOACTIVITE".

19 mars 1997 à18h30Salle de cinémaduPalais de laDécouverte

Le Palais de la Découverte propose un film dans le cadre de son"écran scientifique du mercredi" consacré à LARADIOACTIVITE, en collaboration avec le Centre National dela Recherche Scientifique et le Service du Film de la RechercheScientifiqueprésentation : J.Laberrigue -Frolow et R.Bimbot

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Ils participent à l'organisation du centenaire

Les organismes

Académie des sciences/ Académie nationale de médecine/ Centre Antoine Béclère/ CEA/CNRS/ EDF/ Institut Curie/ Muséum national d¹histoire naturelle/ Université Pierre et MarieCurie

Les comités

Haut comité national/ Comité exécutif/ Comité de parrainage/ Comité de soutien

Les comités régionauxAlsace

Aquitaine

Auvergne

Basse-Normandie

Bourgogne

Bretagne

Centre

Champagne-Ardennes

Corse

Franche-Comté

Haute Normandie

Languedoc-Roussillon

Ile de France

Limousin

Lorraine

Nord-Pas-de-Calais

Midi-Pyrénées

Pays de Loire

Picardie

Poitou-Charentes

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Provence-Alpes-Côted'azur

Rhône-Alpes

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Bibliographie

BIBLIOGRAPHIE SUR LARADIOACTIVITÉ

A paraître :

Livret des célébrations nationales 1997édité par le Ministère de la CultureDirection des archives de France

au sommaire :- « Pierre et Marie Curie découvrent le polonium et le radium » dePierre Radvanyi

Mars 1998 : Dossier de Presse 1998 du centenaire●

Derniers ouvrages parus :

CD ROM « Environnement et santé : la radioactivité », par leComité régional Languedoc-Roussillon (Epidaure - CRLC etFaculté de Médecine de Montpellier), en partenariat avec plusieursorganismes impliqués dans le Centenaire (janvier 1998 )

Noyaux atomiques et radioactivité.Dossier "Pour la Science" (octobre 1996).(ouvrage collectif)

Livret des célébrations nationales 1996édité par le Ministère de la CultureDirection des archives de Franceau sommaire :

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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- «Découverte de la radioactivité - 1896 : Henri Becquerel découvreles rayons uraniques»de Maurice Tubiana

Histoire Naturelle de la Radioactivité.Catalogue de l'exposition en cours au Muséum National d'HistoireNaturelle (1996).(ouvrage collectif )

Yves PELICIER et Maurice TUBIANAAtome et société, actes du colloque de Paris, 30-31 mai 1996,Centre Antoine Béclère (1997)

Maurice TUBIANA et Robert DAUTRAYLa radioactivité et ses applications.Que sais-je? no33 PUF (1996)

De langue anglaise :

One hundred years after the discovery of radioactivityNuméro spécial de Radiochimica acta (1996) (ouvrage collectif)Oldenbourg verlag GmbH, Rosenheimer Strasse 145 D-81671Munich (Allemagne)

Richard E MOULDA century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicineInstitute of Physics Publishing, Bristol and Philadelphia (1995)

Bibliographie en langue française:

Henri BECQUERELRecherches sur une propriété nouvelle de la matièreMémoires de l'Académie des Sciences, t. 46Firmin-Didot, 1903

Jean-Pierre BATON et Gilles COHEN-TANNOUDJIL'horizon des particulesGallimard 1989

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Claude BROUSSOULOUX et André BONNINLe corps humain est-il transparent ?Robert Laffont, Collections " Réponses-santé ", 1985

J. BUSSAC et J. TEILLACNucléaire (Energie)Encyclopaedia Universalis - Supplément 1996 (page 1034)

J. BUSSAC, N. CAMARCAT, R. DAUTRAY, J. HOROWITZJ. MEGY, J-P. PERVES et J. TEILLACNucléaire (Industrie)Encyclopaedia Universalis - Supplément 1996 (page 1036)

Colette CHASSARD-BOUCHAUDEnvironnement et radioactivitéP.U.F. 1993, « Que sais-je ? » n ° 2797

Gilles COHEN-TANNOUDJI et Michel SPIROLa matière - espace -tempsFayard 1986

Michel CROZONLa matière première : La recherche des particules fondamentales et deleurs interactionsSeuil, 1987

Pierre CURIEOeuvres complètesEdition des Archives Contemporaines, Montreux, 1995

Marie SKLODOWSKA-CURIEOeuvresAcadémie Polonaise des Sciences, Varsovie, 1954Conférences Nobel d'Henri BECQUEREL (faite en 1903), de PierreCURIE (faite en 1905) et de Marie CURIE (faite en 1911)Les conférences Nobel en 1903 et en 1911, et Librairie Félix Alcan 1912

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Madame Pierre CURIERadioactivité (2 volumes)Hermann 1935

Marie CURIEPierre CurieDenoël, 1955

Eve CURIEMadame CurieGallimard 1994, collection Folio n ° 1336

Publié sous la direction de Michel DÜRRLa radioactivité dans le siècleNuméro spécial de la Revue Générale Nucléaire 1 (janvier-février 1996)

Bernard GATTYLes comptes du temps passé (Datation)Hermann, 1985

Françoise GIROUDUne femme honorableLe Livre de poche n 5647

Anna HURWICPierre CurieFlammarion 1995,"Figures de la science "

Jeanne LABERRIGUE-FROLOWLa physique des particules élémentaires, de sa naissance à sa maturité(1930-1960)Masson, 1990

José LEITE-LOPEZ et Bruno ESCOUBESSources et évolution de la physique quantiqueTextes fondateurs, Masson, 1995

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Madame JOLIOT-CURIELes radioéléments naturelsHermann 1946

Elisabeth METZGERMarie CurieHachette junior 1991

Steve PARKERMarie Curie et le radiumSorbier 1995

Rosalynd PFLAUMMarie Curie et sa filleBelfond 1992

Susan QUINNMarie Curie, une vieOdile Jacob 1996 (à paraître)

Pierre RADVANYI et Monique BORDRYLa radioactivité artificielle et son histoireLe Seuil 1984, « Points Sciences » n °42

Pierre RADVANYI et Monique BORDRYHistoires d'atomesBelin 1988, « Regards sur la science »

Pierre RADVANYILes rayonnements nucléairesP.U.F. 1995, «Que sais-je ? » n ° 844

Robert REIDMarie Curie derrière la légendeLe Seuil 1979, « Points Sciences » n ° 35

Emilio SEGRELes physiciens modernes et leurs découvertesFayard 1984

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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Maurice TUBIANA et Michel BERTINRadiobiologie, radioprotectionP.U.F. 1989, « Que sais-je ? » n° 2439

Spencer WEARTLa grande aventure des atomistes françaisFayard 1980

Centenaire de la découverte de la radioactivité

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L'ouvrage du Centenaire

Sommaire de l'ouvrage

Introduction par G. Charpak et M.Tubiana

I. Les Découvertes.II. La Radioactivité et l’Infiniment

PetitIII. La Radioactivité, l’Univers et le

Temps.IV. La Radioactivité et la VieV. Radioactivité et Energie.VI. Radioactivité et Société

La célébration du Centenaire, par R.Bimbot.

Repères chronologiques.Bibliographie

Un siècle d’images et de réflexion sur la radioactivité.

Sélection de citations des plus grands auteurs et de photographies, documents,images anciennes et actuelles sur 100 ans de recherche et d'applications.par René Bimbot1, André Bonnin2, Robert Deloche3 et Claire Lapeyre4

avec la participation, pour l'iconographie,de Lucile Arnaudet (CEA), Lenka Brochard (Archives Curie/CNRS),

Marie-Odile Jacquot (CNRS) et Catherine Renon (CEA).

ouvrage du centenaire

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Introduction de l’ouvrage par Georges Charpak et Maurice TubianaMembres de l’Académie des Sciences,

Coprésidents du Haut Comité National pour le Centenaire de la Découverte de laRadioactivité

1) Physicien, Directeur de Recherche au CNRS/IN2P32) Professeur de Radiologie et d’Imagerie Nucléaire à l’Hôpital Cochin3) Docteur ès Sciences, Physicien au CEA.4)Chargée de la Médiatisation des Sciences au Ministère des Affaires Etrangères.

Un ouvrage conçu par Robert Delpire et réalisé par Idéodis-Création.144 pages illustrées en quadrichromie.

Format 220x280 mm à l’italienne.

Publication prévue pour novembre 1999.Souscription ouverte jusqu’au 30 septembre 1999 auprès d'organismes et de

particuliers.

Prix de souscription : 150 F TTC pour la version brochée 250 F TTC pour la version reliée.

Participation aux frais d’envoi :30 F TTC par ouvrage pour commandes de moins de 5 exemplairesForfait de 100 F TTC pour commandes de 5 exemplaires et au-delà

Extraits de citationsLe fantôme gris de ce squelette bagué* indique du geste de sa main, notre nouveau monde, celui que

nous fêtons et qui commence, en effet, entre 1896, année de la découverte de la radioactivité par HenriBecquerel et 1903, année de son PrixNobel.....

Michel Serres, Colloque Atome et Société, 1996*La main de Bertha Röntgen

.... Si l'existence de ce nouveau métal se confirme, nous proposons de l'appeler polonium, du nom dupays d'origine de l'un d'entre nous. Pierre Curie et Marie Curie, 18 juillet 1898

Vers 1903-1904, il devient certain que les rayonnements (rayons X ou Radium) peuvent guérir certainspetits cancers, événement immense car jusque là on croyait que seule la chirurgie pouvait y parvenir... Maurice Tubiana, Sorbonne, 1998

ouvrage du centenaire

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Avec la radioactivité, c’est l’instable, l’éphémère, et même le furtif qui ont trouvé place dans unephysique jusque là rivée à la seule permanence. Etienne Klein, La Recherche, 1997

Je suis de ceux qui pensent avec Nobel que l’humanité tirera plus de bien que de mal des découvertesnouvelles. Pierre Curie, Discours Nobel, 1903

La radioactivité est à la matière ce que l’écume est à la vague. Jean-Marc Cavedon, 1996

.....tournons nous un instant vers Marie Curie....Un mythe se crée à partir de l'épuisante chimie qui lui apermis d'extraire de quelques tonnes de pechblende une minuscule quantité de radium et de polonium.... Jacques Chirac, Sorbonne, 1998

... nous sommes en droit de penser que les chercheurs construisant ou brisant les éléments à volontésauront réaliser des transmutations à caractère explosif, véritables réactions chimiques en chaînes. Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Discours Nobel, 1935

.....Un progrès plus considérable encore, sans doute plus lointain, mais espérable cependant, sera deréaliser des conditions où les atomes légers d'hydrogène se condensent en atomes plus lourds, avec undégagement de chaleur si grand qu'il explique le rayonnement du soleil et des étoiles. Jean Perrin, 1923

En 1942, Fermi lance la première pile, en 1945 deux bombes éclatent dans le ciel du Japon... La suite, ledevenir de cette capacité redoutable est notre problème. Notre problème. Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Panthéon, 1995

Le destin d'une civilisation,..., n'est pas de redouter la connaissance des choses, mais de la maîtriser. Lerefus du savoir, la crainte de la pensée créatrice, sont, j'en suis sûr, le propre des sociétés perdues. François Mitterrand, Panthéon, 1995

Parmi les auteurs cités, sont prévus :

Ugo Amaldi, Peter Armbruster, Jean Claude Artus, Henri Becquerel, MoniqueBordry,

Louis de Bröglie, Jean-Marc Cavedon, Georges Charpak, Jacques Chirac, GillesCohen-Tannoudji, Marie Curie, Pierre Curie,

Robert Dautray, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Bertrand Goldschmidt, FrédéricJoliot,

Irène Joliot-Curie, Françoise Giroud, Etienne Klein, Alexandre Kwiasniewski,Hélène Langevin-Joliot, Nicole Le Douarin,

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François Mitterrand, Jean Perrin, Pierre Radvanyi, Ernest Rutherford, GlennSeaborg, Emilio Segré, Michel Serres,

Gérard Toulouse, Maurice Tubiana, Lech Walesa, etc...

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ouvrage du centenaire

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