cellular functions ms. durnford, winter 2013. chapter 1 –the cell theory –cell structure...
TRANSCRIPT
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Cellular FunctionsMs. Durnford, Winter 2013
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• Chapter 1– The Cell Theory– Cell Structure– Organelles– Animal and Plant Cells
• Chapter 2– Nutrients– Nucleic Acids– Cell Membrane– Transport– Respiration and Photosynthesis
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• Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their:– Structure, – Function, – Growth,– Evolution,– Distribution and – Taxonomy
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• Biology as a Science progressed by observation.
• The hypotheses proposed by early scientists were rarely tested by experiments.
Biology as a Science progressed by observation!
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• Abiogenesis is the belief that living organisms can be created, or arise, from non living matter.
• Many abiogenesis hypothesis proposed by scientists were rarely tested by experiments.
• For Example:– Pond dries up – no fish or frogs– Rain comes – fish and frogs
Therefore: It rained fish and frogs
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• Proposed by Aristotle who observed rotting meat and flies.
• People Believed this for 2000 years!
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• Biogenesis is the principle that living organisms develop from other living organisms and not from non living matter.
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• There were a number of important Scientists who contributed to the theory of Abiogenesis and Biogenesis. Some of these include:
– Jean Van Helmont– Francesco Redi– John Needham– Lazzaro Spallanzani– Louis Pasteur
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• ~300 years ago
Belgian doctor Jean van Helmont – concluded that mice could be created from a dirty shirt.
• He placed grains of wheat and a dirty shirt in a container and in 21 days mice appeared.
• Conclusion: Sweat caused wheat to ferment into mice. Abiogenesis!
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• In 1668 Francesco Redi (Italian physician) tested Aristotle’s hypothesis (meat flies)
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• 4 sets of jars with meat (snake, eel, fish, veal)
one set was open (experimental group)
one set was sealed (control group)
• Maggots appeared on open jars of meat
• Conclusion: Flies come from flies!
• Biogenesis – life from life.
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• John Needham (1713 – 1781) English botanist
• Reexamined theory of Abiogenesis
• Observed meat broth left unsealed soon changed colour (evidence of microorganisms).
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Experiment:
• Boiled flasks of meat broth to kill microorganisms
• Left the flasks (unsealed)
• Flasks soon become murky and full of microbes
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Conclusion:
• Abiogenesis
• This conclusion sent many scientists down the wrong path.
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• 25 years later Spallanzani repeated experiment more carefully
• Boiled flasks longer and sealed flasks
• Critics again objected to sealed flasks!
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• Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
• Developed the swan neck flask in 1864
• This led to great scientific break through!
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Experiment:
• Boiled broth, air could enter but microbes were trapped in curved flask
• Broth remained clear Biogenesis finally proven!
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Unit 1 Chapter 1
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• All living things are composed of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things.
• All cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
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• What is a prokaryotic cell?
– Prokaryotes and unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
– These are the most simple types of living cells.
– Examples: cyanobacteria, E.Coli, thermoacidophiles
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• Eukaryote cells do have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
• Eukaryotes can be multicellular– organisms made of many cells
OR
• Eukaryotes can be unicellular– organisms made only of one cell
• Plants, Animals, Fungus and Protists are all eukaryotes.
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• Within cells there is an intricate network of organelles that all have unique functions.
• These organelles allow the cell to function properly.
• Here is a description of common organelles and their location.
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• Nucleus– One or more per cell– Spherical shape– Denser than surrounding cytoplasm
• Chromosome– Usually in the form of chromatin– Contains genetic information– Composed of DNA– Thicken for cellular division– Set number per species (i.e. 23 pairs for human)
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• Nuclear membrane– Surrounds nucleus– Composed of two layers– Numerous openings for nuclear traffic
• Nucleolus– Spherical shape– Visible when cell is not dividing– Contains RNA for protein manufacture
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• Cytoplasm– Collective term for cytosol and organelles contained within– Colloidal suspension– Cytosol mainly composed of water with free-floating
molecules– Viscosity constantly changes
• Centrioles– Paired cylindrical organelles near nucleus– Composed of nine tubes, each with three tubules– Involved in cellular division– Lie at right angles to each other
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• Chloroplasts– A plastid usually found in plant cells– Contain green chlorophyll where
photosynthesis takes place
• Cytoskeleton– Composed of microtubules– Supports cell and provides shape– Aids movement of materials in and out of cells
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• Endoplasmic reticulum– Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane
– Goes through cytoplasm onto cell membrane
– Stores, separates, and serves as cell's transport system
– Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
– Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface
• Golgi Apparatus– Protein 'packaging plant‘
– A membrane structure found near nucleus
– Composed of numerous layers forming a sac
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• Mitochondira– Second largest organelle with
unique genetic structure– Double-layered outer membrane with inner folds
called cristae– Energy-producing chemical reactions take place on
cristae– Controls level of water and other materials in cell– Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, and forms urea
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• Lysosome– Digestive 'plant' for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates– Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal– Vary in shape depending on process being carried out– Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes
• Ribosomes– Each cell contains thousands– Miniature 'protein factories‘– Composes 25% of cell's mass– Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum– Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm
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• Vacuoles– Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion,
and waste removal– Contains water solution– Contractile vacuoles for water removal (in
unicellular organisms)
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• Cell Wall– Most commonly found in plant cells– Controls turgity– Extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane– Primary cell wall: extremely elastic– Secondary cell wall: forms around primary cell wall after
growth is complete
• Plasma membrane– Outer membrane of cell that controls cellular traffic– Contains proteins (left, gray) that span through the membrane
and allow passage of materials– Proteins are surrounded by a phospholipid bi-layer.
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Plant Cells Animal Cells
Have chloroplasts and cell Walls
Do Not have chloroplasts and cell
walls
Do not usually have centrioles
Have centrioles
Have a large central vacuole
Do Not have a large central vacuole
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• Cell Theory Article
• Video
• Questions
• For Extra Practice on the cell visit QUIZLET
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Unit 2
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• Organic compounds are Carbon (C) based compounds.
• The three elements we will be looking at are:– Hydrogen– Oxygen– Carbon
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• Is the building of a larger, more complex compound by the removal of a water molecule from two smaller, less complex compounds. (an anabolic process)
A + B AB + H2O
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• Dehydration Synthesis
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• The reverse process of dehydration synthesis.
• The breaking down of a larger more complex compound into two smaller less complex compounds by the addition of a water molecule. (a catabolic process)
AB + H2O A + B
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• Living things (including cells) are composed of the following types of organic compounds:– Carbohydrates– Lipids– Proteins– Nucleic acids
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Carbohydrates
• What are they?– You get carbohydrates from fruits, grains etc.– The building blocks of carbohydrates are
monosaccarides– Quick chemical energy– Can be used for structure (ie; Cell Wall)
Examples• Starch, fructose, sucrose, cellulose
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• Sugars and starches
• Used for energy (example = glucose) and structural parts of cells (example = cellulose)
• Contain the following elements: C, H & O
• Always have a 2:1 ratio of H:O
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Key Terms
• Monomer
• Polymer
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• There are three types of carbohydrates:– Monosaccharides
– Disaccharides
– Polysaccharides
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• Building blocks = monosaccharides
examples: glucose, fructose, galactose
• Monosaccharides are also known as single sugars.
• Molecular formula = C6H12O6
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• Structural formula for glucose:
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• Disaccharides are double sugars.
• Molecular formula = C12H22O11
• Examples:– Maltose = glucose + glucose– Lactose = glucose + galactose– Sucrose = glucose + fructose
Notice the “ose” trend???
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• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates
• Examples = cellulose, starch, glycogen and chitin
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• a polysaccharide that is the principal component of the exoskeletons of arthropods and of the bodies of fungi.
• Exoskeletons are made of chitin.
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Questions1. What is an organic compound?
2. Compare and contrast dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
3. What is the difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?
4. a) Give some examples of complex carbohydrates.
b) How could a cell get usable energy from starch or glycogen?
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• Contain elements C, H & O
• Do not dissolve in water!
• Supply energy to the cells of the body, but difficult for the body to break down.
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• Long term energy storage– 1g of lipid contains 2.25 X as much energy as
1g of carbohydrate!
• Cushioning of internal organs
• Hormones (estrogens, testosterone)
• Absorption of vitamins.
• Cell membrane (phospholipids)
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Lipids
Three groups:
• fats, oils, and waxes
• phospholipids
• steroids
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Lipids
• Large molecules composed of two types of monomers
• Glycerol – three carbon molecule containing three hydroxyl groups
• Fatty Acids – chains of carbon and hydrogen, ended with a carboxyl group
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Lipids
Fats, Oils, Waxes
• Include: – Triglycerides– Saturated Fats– Unsaturated Fats
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Lipids
Triglycerides
• Most common type of lipid.
• Energy storing.
• 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
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Fats, or triglycerides, are formed by the union of glycerol and three fatty acids.
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• Fatty acid contains only carbon-carbon single bonds with max number of hydrogen atoms.
• The greater the number of hydrogen atoms, the firmer the fat.
• Examples: lard and butter, animal fats.
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• Fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain and has some hydrogen missing.
• More easily broken down than saturated fats.
• Examples: sunflower seed oil, plant fats, fish fats.
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Lipids
Phospholipids
• Main components of cell membranes.
• Made of a phosphate group and two fatty acids.
• Polar end – hydrophilic – soluble in water.
• Non-polar end – hydrophobic – insoluble.
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• What are the three groups of lipids?
• What are the monomers of lipids?
• Why are saturated fats harder to break down than unsaturated fats?
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Proteins
• Proteins contain elements C, H, O & N (nitrogen!)
• They are used by cells to build structures and are used in chemical activities.
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Proteins
• Examples: – Feathers, wool, silk– hormones (example = insulin)– Hemoglobin– Enzymes– membrane proteins– Hair, muscles, nails (example = collagen).
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Proteins
• Proteins are associated with building cell structures. Whenever cells are damaged and require repair, proteins are manufactured.
• Proteins are composed of 20 different amino acid building blocks.
• There are 8 amino acids that the body cannot make! These essential amino acids must be obtain through food.
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• Building blocks of proteins = Amino Acids
• General formula:
• R= Variable. This differs for each of the 20 Amino Acids
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Proteins
Polypeptide
• a long chain of amino acids
• a bond formed between amino acids is a peptide bond.
• a protein is composed of one or more polypeptides
• insulin is the smallest polypeptide (51)
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Proteins
• Structure:
• A unique sequence of amino acids.
• The chain bends and folds.
• The shape is important to its function.
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• How would you be able to identify a carbohydrate, from a lipid, from a protein?
• Compare and contrast:– carbohydrate & lipid– lipid & protein– carbohydrate & protein
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• What are the building blocks of carbohydrates, give an example.
• How / where are polypeptides built?
• List two functions of lipids.
• What are the components of a triglyceride?
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Read pgs. 32-42 to assist in answering questions.
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• The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are not nutrients but they are essential for all living things.
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• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic code for almost every living organism
• DNA is often called a double helix because of the way it coils
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• The sugar and the phosphate molecules form the backbone of the spiral ladder, while the nitrogenous bases form the rungs.
• Nitrogenous bases from one side of the “ladder” are paired with nitrogenous bases.
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•There are 4 bases to DNA called nucleotides: A (adenine) T (thymine) C (cytosine) G (guanine)
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• Adenine and guanine always combine together.
• Cytosine and thymine combine together.
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• Ribonucleic acid.
• RNA transmits genetic information from DNA to proteins produced by the cell.
• Unlike DNA, RNA is single-stranded. An RNA strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (ribose) and phosphate groups.
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• RNA also has 4 nucleotides:
A (adenine) U (uracil) C (cytosine) G (guanine)
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• Organic Compound review Sheet
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Cell MembraneBiology 11
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• The living cell has to maintain an internal balance. (homeostasis)
• The plasma membrane is selectively permeable – it allows some substances to cross membrane, but blocks others.
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The fluid-mosaic model describes the plasma membrane of animal cells.
The plasma membrane that surrounds these cells has two layers (a bilayer) of phospholipids (fats with phosphorous attached), which at body temperature are like vegetable oil (fluid).
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• Each phospholipid molecule has a head that is attracted to water (hydrophilic: hydro = water; philic = loving) and a tail that repels water (hydrophobic: hydro = water; phobic = fearing).
• Both layers of the plasma membrane have the hydrophilic heads pointing toward the outside; the hydrophobic tails form the inside of the bilayer.
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• Because cells reside in a watery solution (extracellular fluid), and they contain a watery solution inside of them (cytoplasm), the plasma membrane forms a circle around each cell so that the water-loving heads are in contact with the fluid, and the water-fearing tails are protected on the inside.
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• There are no chemical bonds between the phospholipid molecules – they are free to move around laterally.
• Proteins are found throughout the plasma membrane that can also move around, like icebergs in a sea of phospholipids
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• Carbohydrates can also be attached to the outer surface of the plasma membrane.
– Carb. attached to a phospholipid = glycolipid
– Carb. attached to a protein = glycoprotein
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• Proteins and substances such as cholesterol become embedded in the bilayer, giving the membrane the look of a mosaic.
• Because the plasma membrane has the consistency of vegetable oil at body temperature, the proteins and other substances are able to move across it.
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• The molecules that are embedded in the plasma membrane also serve a purpose.
• For example, the cholesterol that is stuck in there makes the membrane more stable and prevents it from solidifying when your body temperature is low.
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• Cell Membrane Tutorial
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Cell Transport
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• Two parts of a Solution:
–Solute• A substance dissolved in another substance,
usually in lesser amount.
–Solvent• A substance in which another substance is
dissolved, forming a solution
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• Cell membranes are selectively permeable. This means that some things can pas through while others cannot.
• Proteins embedded in the cell membrane are used as channels and pumps which allow substances through or not.
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Cell TransportCell Transport
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Diffusion• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an
area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.
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Cell Transport
• There are three types of cell transport:
– Simple Diffusion
– Facilitated Diffusion
– Active Transport
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Passive Transport
• Passive Transport: Movement of materials across the cell membrane going with the concentration gradient (from a region of greater concentration to a region of lesser concentration).
Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion are both examples of Passive Transport
• *Cell uses no energy to transport particles!
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Simple Diffusion
• No transport protein used
• Movement with the concentration gradient (high to low)
• No additional cell energy required
• Examples: water, oxygen, carbon dioxide.
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Homeostasis
• To maintain a stable, constant condition.
• To maintain equilibrium.
• The cell wants its internal environment to be the same as its external environment.
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Concentration Gradient
• When there is a difference in concentrations:– High concentration means more particles– Low concentration means less particles
– In diffusion, particles move from a high concentration to a low concentration to reach on EQUAL concentration (equilibrium) on each side.
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Passive Transport Examples
• a) Osmosis – specific type of diffusion (can you remember the definition??)
• b) Facilitated diffusion – Process by which molecules diffuse across a cell membrane with the aid of transport proteins. This is for particles that cannot dissolve into the lipid bi-layer or are too large to pass through.
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PassiveTransport
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• A solution that has the same concentration of solutes as the cell.
• Therefore there is no net movement of water molecules
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Hypertonic
• The solution has higher concentration of solutes then the cell.
• Therefore there will be a net movement OUT of the cell.
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• A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than the cell.
• There will be a net movement of water into the cell.
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Hypotonic
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Osmotic Pressure
• This is the pressure that water exerts on the hypertonic side of a selectively permeably membrane.
• It can be problematic for living cells because they can burst from over-inflation with water or shrivel up from loss of water.
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Cytolysis: The bursting or rupture of a cell.
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Facilitated Diffusion
• Transport protein used: carrier protein or channel protein
• Movement with the concentration gradient
• No additional cell energy required
• Passive
• Example: glucose molecules
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Facilitated Diffusion
• Similar to simple diffusion in the sense that it is diffusion (across a membrane) from a high concentration to a lower concentration.
• However, this time the rate of diffusion is greatly accelerated by the action of membrane proteins that act as carrier molecules and aid in diffusion.
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Facilitated Diffusion
Protein Channels Carrier Proteins
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• Passive Transport Video
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Active Transport
• Molecular Active Transport: Movement of materials across the cell membrane going against the concentration gradient (from a region of lesser concentration to a region of greater concentration).
• *Requires energy from cell!
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Active Transport
• Transport protein used: Carrier Protein
• Movement AGAINST the concentration gradient (low to high)
• Additional cell energy required
• Active
• Example:
Sodium Potassium Pump
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Active Transport
• Molecular active transport involves protein pumps.
• Examples of active transport:– Cells in Gills of marine fish actively pump out
salts.– Root cells of plants often take in large
quantities of ions.
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• Active transport Video
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Sodium Potassium PumpActive Transport
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Bulk Membrane Transport
• Active transport (requires energy)
• Requires the creation of vacuoles and vesicles
• Two types:– Endocytosis– Exocytosis
Animation
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Endocytosis• Endocytosis: The process by which the plasma
membrane engulfs and takes in substances from a cell’s environment. *Common in unicellular organisms.
• 2 types:– i) Phagocytosis: Form of endocytosis in which large
solid particles are taken into the cell. Example – WBC’s engulfing harmful bacteria
– ii) Pinocytosis: Form of endocytosis in which small liquid droplets are taken into the cell. a.k.a. cell drinking
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Endocytosis
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Phagocytosis
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Exocytosis
• Exocytosis: Cell products or wastes are enclosed in vesicles and released to outside of cell.
• Process:– Golgi Apparatus “packages” the material into a vesicle and
sends it to the cell membrane– The vesicle fuses with the membrane– The material is deposited outside the cell
*Reverse process of endocytosis.
• Examples = secretion or elimination of waste
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Energy and Life
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Biology 11 133
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What is energy?• Energy is the capacity to do work.
• All living this require energy, but how do they get it?
• There are two ways to receive energy,– Produce it– Consume it
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Photosynthesis
• The sun is the main source of energy for the earth.
• Autotrophs make their own food, and most are green plants.
• This is done through the process of Photosynthesis.
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Photosynthesis
• We know photosynthesis requires energy from the sun, but the sun is not available 24 hours a day!
• Photosynthesis must occur in two phases:– Light dependent reactions
• Convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH)
– Light independent reactions• Uses ATP and NADPH from the light dependent
reactions to build glucose.
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Role of Photosynthesis• Plants use it to make food
• Animals get their food from plants, so therefore, from photosynthesis as well (consumers)
• Photosynthesis also produces oxygen which most living things need to respire and live.
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The process of photosynthesis
• Light is trapped by chlorophyll and provides energy for photosynthesis
• Sunlight energy is used to split water in half (photolysis)
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The process of photosynthesis
• Products from splitting water:– Protons stored for later use– Electrons Passed to chorophyll– Oxygen can be used in respiration or
release
• Light energized the electrons and turns them into high energy electrons. These are passed down an electron transport chain
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Electron Transport Chain
• Is a series of proteins on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.
• Electrons are passed from one protein to another, and energy is released which:– Helps join ADP and phosphate to form ATP– Allows hydrogen to join with NADP to form
NADPH– Both forms of energy are used in light
independent reactions.
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Process of Photosynthesis
• Glucose is formed when the high energy electrons, protons from storage and carbon dioxide from air are combined.
• This is takes place in chloroplasts and is known as the Calvin Cycle. This is a part of the light independent reactions.
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The Calvin Cycle• 1. Grab: A five-carbon carbon catcher catches
one molecule of carbon dioxide and forms a six-carbon molecule.
• 2. Split: the enzyme RuBisCO (with the energy of ATP and NADPH molecules) breaks the six-carbon molecule into two equal parts.
• NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) is a coenzyme that carries electrical energy used in cellular processes.
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The Calvin Cycle• 3. Leave: A trio of three carbons leave and
become sugar. The other trio moves on to the next step.
• 4. Switch: Using ATP and NADPH, the three carbon molecule is changed into a five carbon molecule.
• 5. The cycle starts over again
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Photosynthesis• Once sugars are created through the calvin cycle,
mitochondria can now use it for cellular respiration.
• The mitochondria uses glucose, or sugars, to create ATP which is a usable energy for the cell.
• This not only occurs in plant cells, but in our own cells as well. By consuming other plants and animals, our body uses the sugars ( carbohydrates) that we eat into usable energy by mitochondra.
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Review Questions
• What is the primary function of photosynthesis?
• Name two molecules that are produced during the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis and serve as temporary sites for energy storage.
• In eukaryotic cells, photosynthesis occurs in organelles named?
• True or False The Calvin cycle (= light-independent reactions) can occur in a plant that is in dark room so long as the materials carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADP-H are present.
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Cellular Respiration
• Process by which mitochondria break down food molecules to produce ATP in plants and animals.
• Nutrients + Oxygen Water + ATP + CO2
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Cellular respiration
• Changes organic chemical energy (glucose) into inorganic chemical energy (ATP)
• Three stages of cellular respiration– Glycolosis
• Anaerobic ( does not require oxygen)
– Krebs Cycle• Aerobic ( requires oxygen)
– Electron Transport Chain• Aerobic (requires oxygen)
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Glycolysis
• Breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid
• Uses enzymes and takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell
• Produces– 2 pyruvic acid molecules – used in next step
of cellular respiration– 2 ATP molecules –energy for the cell– 2 NADH – electron carrier
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• Before the next step of cellular respiration, the pyruvic acid molecules formed in the glycolysis must go into the mitochondria.
• The next two aerobic reactions will then form:
Pyruvic acid CO2 + Water + ATP
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Krebs Cycle
• Is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy.
• Provides the hydrogen and electrons needed for the electron transport chain, which happens in the mitochondria.
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Krebs Cycle
• The following is formed during the Krebs Cycle:
– 2 Molecules of CO2 are released– 2 Molecules of ATP are formed– 3 molecules of NAD+ are combined with
hydrogen ( NAD+ NADH)– 1 molecule of FAD+ combines with hydrogen
( FAD+ FADH)
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Electron Transport Chain
• Following the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain uses the electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) to pass electrons down a protein chain and slowly releases energy that is used to form ATP and water molecules.
• This transfers the most energy.
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Equation
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Summary
• Photosynthesis- Converts solar energy into chemical energy
• Cellular Respiration – Converts chemical energy into usable energy
• Therefore living things deal with three types of energy!– Solar energy– Chemical energy (sugars / lipids)– Usable energy (A.T.P.)
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Review Questions• What are the three main processes of Cellular
Respiration?
• What is produced during glycolysis?
• Name two electron carriers.
• Compare and contrast:– Anaerobic and aerobic– Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration