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GuidelinesforCommunitySupplyandProtectioninAfrica

CostEffectiveBoreholesinsubSaharanAfricaDanert,KCarter,RC,Adekile,DandMacDonald,A

AbstractAcommonassertionisthatthecostofwaterwelldrillinginsubSaharanAfricaistoohighandthatconstructionqualityisregularlycompromised.Overthelast20years,severalstudiesregardingthishavebeenundertaken,coveringmorethantencountriesintheregion.AlthoughdrillingcostsinsubSaharanAfricaaregenerallyhigherthaninIndia,therearevalidreasonsforthis.However,changestoboreholedesigns,procurementandcontractmanagementpractices,wellclusteringforeconomiesofscale,sitingandsupervisionpracticesaswellassupporttoandprofessionalizationoftheprivatesectorcanallservetobringdrillingcostsdown,andimproveconstructionquality.Thispaperprovidesanoverviewofhowdrillingcostscanbecalculated.Itpullstogetherthekeyissuesthataffectdrillingcostsandpricesintoaconceptualframework.Theframeworkissubsequentlyusedtocomparepoliciesandpracticesforthecountrieswhereinformationisreadilyavailable.Thepaperthusintendstoraiseawarenessandimprovetheanalyticalcapacityofimplementersanddecisionmakersregardingmeasuresthatcouldbeadoptedtoimprovethecosteffectivenessofboreholedrillingintheirparticularcontext.

1 IntroductionIthasbeenestimatedthatabout35,000boreholesperyearneedtobedrilledinsubSaharanAfricatomeettheMDGsfordomesticwatersupply1.Ifoneconsidersfullcoverageby2050,andwaterforirrigationaswellasindustrialsupply,atleast50,000boreholesperyeararerequired.Government,privateenterprises,NGOsanddonorshaveallraisedconcernsaboutthehighcosts,variableconstructionqualityandtheinadequatevolumeofboreholesdrilledinsubSaharanAfrica2.ConcernsregardingthedisparitybetweentherelativelylowcostsofhandpumpsandthehighcostsofdrilledwellswereraisedattheUNDPWorldBankInternationalHandpumpWorkshopin1992(Doyen,2003).Costsavingsonconventionaldrillingofaslittleas10%wouldhaveasignificantimpactonextendingaccesstoimprovedwatersupplies.Useofmanualdrillingwherefeasiblecouldalsoextendaccessatverylowcost.However,itisessentialthatcostsavingsdonotadverselyjeopardisequalityandthatwaterwellinfrastructurecanbesustainedoverthelongterm.Further,inordertoattractprivateinvestment,waterwelldrillingmustbeaviablebusinessventure.Inordertoimprovethehealthoftheboreholedrillingsector,decisionmakersandimplementersshouldbeabletoeasilyidentifyissuesthatreduceefficiencyandcompromisequality.Thispaper

1 BasedonJointMonitoringProgramme(JMP2004)data:12millionpeopleservedin2004:MDGof701millionpeopleservedin2015andfullcoverageof1625millionserved.Assumptions:50%ofpeoplewillbeservedwithahanddugwell,treatedsurfacewaterorspring;37.5%ofpeoplewillbeservedwithahandpump(300peopleperpump)and12.5%withamechanisedborehole(2,000peoplepersystem).Assumes3%ofexistingboreholesareredrilledannually.2egInKenya,about250wellsaredrilledannually,comparedtotherequired650tomeettargets(Doyen,2003);inTanzania,theinvestmentplanprovidesfor1,600boreholesannually,requiringadoublingincapacity(Baumannetal,2005)

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setsoutaconceptualframeworkforcosteffectiveboreholesandanalysespoliciesandpracticesfromseveralcountries3.

2 Assertions,InformationandEvidenceofHighDrillingPricesItisessentialtodistinguishbetweenboreholepriceandboreholecost.PricereferstotheamountpaidbytheGovernmentoraparticularprojectforasuccessfullycompletedborehole,whereascostisbornebythedrillingenterprise.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoisthesumofoverheads,taxes,profitandamarginforrisk(egdryholes,paymentdelays,insecurityandbreakdown).AccurateinformationondrillingpricesorcostsinsubSaharanAfricaisnoteasytoaccess(ANTEA,2007).Systematicanalysisisachallengebecausethereispoor,fragmentedandnonstandardizedrecordkeepingofwatersupplyprojectsandprogrammesinsubSaharanAfricaaswellaslackoftransparency.Table1providesexamplesofestimatedandactualboreholecostsandprices,rangingfrom$2,000to$500,000($120to$1,271permeter).Table1EstimatedandActualDrillingCostandPricesCountry,year(ref) Cost/Priceper: Description

well meterBurkinaFaso2006(ANTEA2007)

$152 Averagecostofdrillingandinstallationofcasingandscreen(PVC)butnotthepump,asestablishedbystudyofdrillingcosts.

Chad2005(Practica,2005)

$12,00015,000

Rangeofmachinedrilledwellpricespaidbydifferentagencies.

Ethiopia,2005(Carter,2006)

$37,800 $252 Estimatedpricefora200mmdiameter,steelcasedboreholeto150m.Nopumporsupervision(basedonanalysisofinputs).

Kenya,1996(Doyen,2003)

$8,400 $120 Priceestimatedfor70mwellinspecificprogramme(includesdrilling,testingbutnotsiting,supervisionorfailure)

Malawi,2001(Mthunzi,2004)

$2,730 Estimatedaveragewellcostincludingcapital,recurrent,personnel&materials;assuming45wellsperyearwithsmallrigbyNGO.

Niger,2005(Danert,2005)

$10,000 $160 Estimatedpriceonabillofquantities,60mdepth,700kmfromcapitalcity,excludingsupervisionandpumpinstallation

Mozambique,2006(WEConsult,2006)

$151 Averagedrillingpriceaccordingtothereport.Includessiting,pumpinstallationandVAT.

Nigeria,2006(Adekile,2007)

$11,700 $195 FederalMinistryofWaterResources2006boreholeprice.PVClined,60mdepthfittedwithhandpump.

Nigeria,2008(Adekileetal,2008a)

$6,000 $120 Estimatedpricefora110mmdiameter,PVClinedboreholeto50mdepthwithoutpumporsupervision(basedonanalysisofinputs).

Nigeria,2008(Adekileetal,2008a)

$2,140 Handdrilled,110mm,PVClined.

Senegal,2006(ANTEA,2007)

$500 Averagecostofdrillingandinstallationofcasingandscreen(stainlesssteel)butnotthepump,asestablishedbystudy.

Tanzania,2004(Baumann,2005)

$6,000 Budgetforboreholewithahandpump,asintheNationalRuralWaterSupplyandSanitationProgramme(2004),MainReportV1.

Uganda,2007(MWE,2007)

$8,700 Averagepriceofprivatesectordrilleddeepboreholes(withhandpumps)paidforbydistrictlocalgovernmentsinF/Y2006/7.

Nigeria,2008(Adekileetal,2009)

$500,000 $2,500 Contractpricefor200mboreholeinRiverState

3IncludingBurkinaFaso,Chad,Ethiopia,Kenya,Nigeria,Niger,Malawi,Mali,Mauritania,Senegal,TanzaniaandUganda.

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Somewellsareshallow,andinstalledwithahandpumpwhileothersaredeepanduseamotorisedpump.Thereisvariationinhowtheyarecalculated(e.g.whataspectsareincludedorleftoutsuchassitingorsupervision).Thetypeandsizeofcasingvaries,asdoesthegeology,distancetravelledandequipment.Thismeansthatonecannotmakesimplisticcomparisonsofboreholepricesbetweencounties,orwithinthesamecountry.Carteretal(2006),WEConsult(2006),ANTEA(2007)andAdekileandOlabode(2008a)emphasisethateveryboreholeisunique.Estimatesofboreholepricesarevitalforbudgetingbutaverageshidemorethantheyreveal.Internationalandincountrybenchmarkingwouldbeusefultoconsidervalueformoneyinservicedeliverybutsimpleleaguetablesofnationaldrillingcostsarenotveryusefulfordrivingdownthepriceofboreholesandensureconstructionquality.Inordertomakeusefulcomparisons,astandardaccountingframeworkisneeded,aswellamethodologyformodellingtheeffectsofkeyvariablesonoverallcost.

3 ConceptualFrameworkItisessentialtounderstandandaddresstheparametersthataffectcosteffectivenessincontext(ANTEA,2007;Carteretal,2006).BoreholecostsandqualityareprimarilyinfluencedbysixcorefactorsandthirteenelementsassetoutintheconceptualframeworkinFigure1anddiscussedbelow.NotethatthisframeworkbuildsonpreviousworkbyWurzel(2001),Smith(2003),Ball(2004),Carter(2006),Carteretal(2006),Danert(2008)andAdekileandOlabode(2008b).Figure1RWSNConceptualFrameworkforCostEffectiveBoreholes

Borehole Cost and Quality1. Basic cost to driller ( =

mobilization + drilling + well development and test pump + installation)

2. Construction Quality

Elements1. Operation & Maintenance procedures2. Preference for local private sector drilling3. Borehole standards and designs4. Smaller and less costly rigs5. Procurement6. Contract packaging7. Program and contract management8. Siting9. Supervision10. Pumping test 11. Groundwater resources monitoring and

evaluation12. Hydrogeological data13. Regulation, support and professionalization

of the private sector

Core Factors1. Physical environment2. Sector players3. Finance4. Communications5. Materials6. Fuel

KeyIssues (grouped)

Outcomes

A B A has an effect on B

Borehole PriceSum of: borehole cost, additional costs

to driller, siting, supervision, social infrastructure and pump.

Plus factor for post-construction failure

3.1 BoreholeCostsandQualityTherecommendedwaytoanalyseboreholecostistoexamineeachofthefollowingcomponents:

Mobilisationallcostsinvolvedintransportingequipmenttositeandbacktobase(Box1).

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Drillingallowsfortheperhour(convertedtopermeter)costsofequipmentdepreciation,labourconsumptionoffuel,lubricantsanddrillfluidsandreplacementofdrillingtools.Affectedbydepth;diameter;drillingandstandbytime(Box2).

Installationincludesthesupplyandinstallationofplaincasingandscreen,gravelpack,sanitarysealandwellheadconstruction.

Welldevelopmentreferstothecleaningoftheboreholeafterconstructionandtestpumpingisthepostconstructionassessmentofboreholeandaquiferperformance.

Thetimetakentoundertaketheseactivitiesaffectsthebasicdrillingcosts.TheaverageexecutiontimeforaboreholeinBurkinaFasois2daysand45daysinSenegal(ANTEA,2007).Notethatwhilesavingsonsaycasingcanhaveaconsiderableeffectontheinstallationcost,theproportionsavedonthetotalcostdependsonhowmuchtheinstallationcomponentaffectsthetotalconstructioncost.Constructionqualityreferstothedegreetowhichtheboreholeisstraight;thequalityofwelldevelopmentandgravelpacking;thecasing/screenqualityincludingitsinstallation;thepermeablebackfillmaterialandplacement;thequalityofthesanitarysealandheadworks.Fromtheuserperspectiveturbidwater,lowflowratesandseasonalfunctionalityareapoorqualityofservice.

Box1MobilisationCostComponentThetablebelowshowsthemobilisation(anddemobilisation)costforahypotheticalproject,100kmfromthecontractorsbase.Twoexamplesaregiven:(a)equipmentpurchasedatUS$170,000and(b)equipmentpurchasedatUS$85,000.

Mobilisation CalculationMethodAmount

(a)Amount

(b)Capitalequipmentdepreciation

Costofrig,freightinsurance,loanchargesconvertedtodailycostbasedona10yearlifespanand60%utilisation $78 $39

Vehicles Rentalmarketrate/realrunningcostof:(a) 2trucksand1pickup;(b)1truckand1pickup. $297 $186

Fuelandlubricants Foratraveldistanceof100km(20loffuel/vehicle at$0.58/l) $46 $35

HumanResources Salariesandperdiemsondailybasisforhydrogeologist,driller,assistantdriller,2labourers,securitypersonand1driver(riga)/2drivers(rigb). $149 $141

SubtotalMobilisation $570 $401SubtotalDemobilisation Estimatedat80%ofmobilisationcost $456 $321Total $1,026 $721Clearly,itisconsiderablymoreeconomicaltospreadthemobilisationcostover10,20or50wells(i.e.aclusteredcontractwithwellsrelativelycloseindistance)thantopaythisamountforeachindividualwelldrilled.

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Box2DrillingCostComponent(adaptedfromRowles,1995)Item Explanation Cost(US$)Capitalequipment Costofrig,freightinsurance,loancharges $170,000

Fixedcosts Lifetime

(Hours) Costperhour

Depreciation20,000 Capital costdividedby lifetime (ie10yearsat

60%utilisation)US$/h $8.50Maintenance Maintenance(5%ofdepreciation)US$/h $0.43Labour US$/h $17.00FuelandLubricants US$/h $10.00Mud/foam US$/h $13.00SubTotal(Naira/h) SumofaboveUS$/h $48.93Costpermeter ConverttoUS$/mbydividingbydrillingspeed

VariableCostsLifetime(Meters) Explanation

ReplacementCost

Costspermeter

Drillingstring 20,000 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcostbylifetime

$15,254$0.76

Hammer 3,000 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcostbylifetime

$8,136$2.71

Hammerbit 300 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcostbylifetime

$1,186$3.95

Dragbit 300 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcostbylifetime

$508$1.69

SubTotalRock SumofdrillstringanddragbitUS$/mSubTotalOverburden

Sumofdrill string,hammer,andhammerbitUS$/m

Example Formation Depth

(m)Overburdendepth(m)

20Rockdepth(m) 30Totaldepth(m) 50Drillingspeed(m/h) 3Calculation CostFixedcosts =50mx(57.85/3) $815Variablecost:overburden

=20mx(0.76+1.67)$49

Variablecosts:rock =30mx(0.76+2.7+4) $200TotalCostDrilling $1,065Drillingcostperm $21

3.2 BoreholePriceFigure1differentiatesbetweenboreholecostandboreholeprice.Theboreholepriceincludes:

Boreholecost(asdescribedinsection3.1) Additionalcoststothedriller(egtaxes,overheadsandkickbacks).Anastutedrillerwill

assesstherequirementsforaparticulartender,considertherisksinvolvedandloadparticularitemsintheBillofQuantitiesaccordingly(Carteretal,2006).

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Pumpcosts.Thesevaryandmayormaynotbeincludedinquotedboreholeprices. Sitingcosts.Thesecanbebornebytheprogramme,drillerorconsultant.Inthecaseofthe

latter,thecostsaremorevisible.IncaseswheresupervisionisundertakenbyprogrammeorGovernmentstaff,thecostsareoftenconcealed.

Supervisioncostsarecanbebornebytheprogramme,orconsultants(asforsiting). CostsofSocialInfrastructurereferstocommunitymobilisationandtraining.Thesecostsare

sometimeshiddenwithinprogrammeexpenditure.3.3 TheCoreFactorsThecorefactorsindicatedinFigure1areindependentvariablesthatcannoteasilybeinfluencedbuthaveabearingonthecostofboreholes.TheyaresummarisedinTable2.Itisimportanttounderstandthemandberealisticabouttheextenttowhichtheycanbechangedinagiventimeframe,ifatall.Table2CoreFactorsthatAffectDrillingCostsPhysicalEnvironment(geology,hydrogeology,climate)

Waterwellconstruction indifferent formationshasdifferent requirements in termsofequipment, casing and depth requirements. If plentiful groundwater is available atshallowdepths,itcanbecheapertodrillthanfordeepgroundwater.Ifformationsaresoft,andgroundwater iswithinthefirst15to20m, lowcosthanddrilledwellsmaybefeasible. Rainfall and recharge affect groundwater availability and sustainability.Althoughthephysicalenvironmentcannotbechanged,theunderstandingofitbysectorprofessionalsandpractitionerscanbeimproved.

SectorPlayersandSectorStructure

Therearenumeroussectorreformsthroughouttheregioncomprisingashifttopublicsectorcoordination,regulation,andpolicyformationwithprivatesectorimplementation(egUganda,Ethiopia,MalawiandGhana).Theseprovidemoreopportunitiesforprivatedrilling.ThereisagrowinginterestintheSectorWideApproach(SWAp),althoughformsvary,whichcanmakethemarketforboreholedrillingmorecoherentandtransparent.Wheremajorstructuralchangesaretakingplacerolesandresponsibilitiesareinastateoffluxandtheintroductionofcostsavingmeasuresisnotalwayseasy.Inmostcountriestherearenumerousdiscretewatersupplyprojectsbeingimplementedwithdifferentobjectives,standardsandconditionalities.Acoherentlegalandregulatoryframeworkiskeyforcosteffectiveboreholeprovisionbuttakestimetodevelopandbeenforced.

Communicationnetworks

Roadnetworksareoftenpoor,particularly inremoteruralareas.Thiscanrenderlargepartsofthecountryinaccessiblefortherainyseasons(egSouthSudan),whichimpactsonequipmentdowntimeandamortisationcosts.Telecommunicationsischangingrapidly.Mobilephonetechnologycanhaveahugeimpactondecisionmakingofjuniorfieldstaff,andthusimpactonwaitingtimesconsiderably.

Finance Coherentfinanceforinvestmentinwatersupplydevelopmentandmaintenanceoverseveralyearsprovidescontinuityofworkandthusencouragesinvestmentbyprivatedrillingenterprisesinequipmentandhumanresources.

MaterialsandEquipment

Thecostandavailabilityofmaterialssuchascasing,gravelpack,cementanddrillingfluidsandequipmentsuchasdrillingrigsandsparesvarieswidely.Somecountriesarefortunatethatcasingsaremanufacturedincountrywhileothershavetoimport.Landlockedcountriestendtobeatadisadvantageastheraisedcostoftransportrenderseverythingmoreexpensive.Thishastobecarefullyconsideredwhenmakinganycomparisons.

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Fuel Fuelpricesvarywidely,notonlyovertime(aswehaveseenoverthelasttwoyearswithfluctuatingpricesforabarrelofoil),butalsobetweenandwithincountries.Somecountries(egEgypt)haveformanyyearsoperatedapolicywherebyoilpricesarehighlysubsidized.Inothercountries,fueltaxationisakeycontributortoGovernmentrevenues.Insomeareas,fuelisnotreadilyavailableandmainlysold,atahigherpricefromplasticcontainersbytheroadside.Kano,Nigeriaisacaseinpoint

3.4 KeyElementsGiventhatthecorefactorschangeverylittle,ifatall,inordertoimproveboreholecosteffectivenessitisessentialthatproperattentionispaidtothe14elementsgiveninfigure1.Box3outlinesthebasicprinciplesthatshouldbeadheredtowithrespecttothesetwelveelements.Theseprinciplesaredrawnfromongoingworktodevelopacodeofpracticeforcosteffectiveboreholes.Box3.KeyElementsforCostEffectiveBoreholes1. Operationandmaintenance(O&M)procedures toensurethesustainabilityofpumpedgroundwater

sourcesfortheexpectedlifetimeofthefacilityshouldbeestablished,adheredtoandmonitored.2. Whodrills?Thepreferredoptionisthatlocalprivatesectorenterprisesundertakeconstructionofwater

wellsandpumpinstallation.Thisshouldencourageincountycapacitytogrowandfostercompetition.3. Standardsanddesign:Boreholesshouldbedesignedandconstructedsothattheyarefitfortheir

intendedpurposeintermsofdiameter,depth,casingandscreen.4. Drillingequipment:Smallerandlesscostlyrigsshouldbeutilizedtoprovideboreholesthatarefitfor

theirdesignedpurpose.Manualdrillingshouldbebroughtintothemainstreamofwatersupplyprogrammes,withappropriatequalitycontrol.

5. Procurement:Systematic,transparentandtimelyprocessesofadvertising,prequalification,tendering,evaluationandawardneedtobeestablishedandfollowed.

6. ContractPackaging:Contractsshouldbepackagedformultipleboreholesincloseproximityandforboreholeswithsimilargeology.

7. Programmeandcontractmanagement.Itisessentialthatdrillingprogrammeshavesufficientskillstodesignandmanagetheprogrammesorbringinexpertise.Paymentforworksmustbetimely.

8. Appropriatesitingpracticesshouldbeutilized.9. Highquality,timelyconstructionsupervisionshouldbeemphasized.10. Testpumpingrequirementsshouldbematchedtoboreholepurposewhiletakingintoaccountthe

importanceofdatatoimprovetheunderstandingofhydrogeologyandwaterresources.11. Rigorousevaluationofgroundwaterresourcesshouldbeundertakenandinformationmadeavailable12. Hydrogeologicaldatacollectionandstorageshouldbeundertaken.13. Regulationandprivatesectorprofessionalism:Astrongpublicsectorisneededtooverseeandregulate

theprivatesector.Theprivatesectorneedsbetteraccesscreditandshouldprofessionalise.

4 AnalysisoftheThirteenElementsofCostEffectiveBoreholesThischaptersetsouteachofthekeyelementsofCEBandprovidesexamplesofpoliciesandpracticesfromwithinthecontinent.

4.1 OperationandMaintenanceProceduresOperationandmaintenance(O&M)procedurestoensurethesustainabilityofpumpedgroundwatersourcesshouldbeestablished,adheredtoandmonitored.Postconstructionfailureincreasesactualboreholecostssignificantly.A50%failurerateeffectivelydoublesthewellprice.Unfortunatelybrokendownhandpumpsandabandonedboreholesarea

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frequentsiteacrossthecontinent.Anestimated30%to50%ofinstalledfacilitiesinNigeriaarebrokendownatanyonetime(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).ComparablefiguresforMalawiandUgandaare30%and20%respectively.Reliableandcomprehensivedatainthisregardislacking,butrecentwaterpointmappingwork(egMalawi,Angola)iscapturingmoreinformation.Alas,updatemechanismsareoftenweak.Unlessinitialconstructionqualityishigh,waterisofanacceptablequalityandlongtermoperationandmaintenanceproceduresareestablishedandadheredto,costeffectiveboreholeprovisionwillneverberealised.Drillingprogrammesoftenneglectthemuchneededcommunitysensitisationandmobilisationaspects.Waterusersrarelycontributemorethanasmallproportionofthecapitalcost,towardsconstructionoftheborehole,ifanything,andownershiptendstobeunclear.Thedevelopmentofandsupporttosocialinfrastructureisoftenneglectedandsparepartsarefrequentlynotavailable.These,combinedwithlackoffollowupsupport(egtoretraincommitteesandmechanics;ensuresparesareavailable)contributetopooroperationandmaintenanceandthusbrokendownsources.Ugandahasdevelopedanoperationandmaintenanceframeworkandasimilarinitiativestartedin2008inMalawi.Standardisationofhandpumpstotwoorthreetypeshasbeenundertakeninseveralcountriesinordertosimplifymaintenanceproceduresandreducethedifferenttypesofsparesrequired.4.2 Whodrillswaterwells?Thepreferredoptionisthatlocalprivatesectorenterprisesundertakeconstructionofwaterwellsandpumpinstallation.Thisshouldencourageincountycapacitytogrowandfostercompetition.Inordertokeepdrillingcostsdown,arigshouldbeusedforabout220daysperyear(60%ofthetime)andbesubjecttoregularmaintenanceandrepair.Thisequatestodrilling20,000hoursoveratenyearperiod.UnfortunatelysuchhighusageisrarelyachievedwithinStateownedequipment.TherearenumerousrigslyingidleinGovernmentyards,brokendownorrarelyused.Thereisagrowingconsensus(bytheWorldBank,severalbilateraldonorsandAfricanGovernments)thatprivatesectordrillingtendstobemoreefficientandeffectivethandirectimplementationbytheState.GovernmentsanddonorsupportagenciesareencouragedtoprovidesupportsothattheprivatesectorcanbebuiltupratherthansupportingthepurchaseofStateowneddrillingrigs.MovestowardsmoreprivatesectordrillingvarywidelyinsubSaharanAfrica(Table4)andisusuallypartofwiderpolicyreforms.NotethatitmaybedesirableforGovernmenttoretainatleastsomeminimumdrillingcapacitytodealwithemergencysituations.ThereisagreyareawithrespecttoNGOdrillingwellsdirectly.Clearly,thisreducesthemarketforprivatedrilling.CompetitionbetweenNGOsandtheprivatesectorisclearlyunfairifNGOsareabletocrosssubsidise,orbenefitfromtaxexemptions.Table4OrganisationsundertakingWaterWellDrillinginSubSaharanAfrica

Country Whodrills?Ethiopia StateenterprisesareoftenthefirstchoicefortheRegionalBureau;privatesectorcomprised23

contractorswith64rigsinlate2005;eightNGOshad11rigsinlate2005(Carter,2006).Malawi DrillingisundertakenbytheState(mainlyatregionallevel)aswellasby10to20privatedrilling

companies.Nigeria NearlyalldrillingdonebyprivatesectoralthoughsomeGovernmentagencies(egKanoState

RUWASSA)alsoconstructwaterwellsinhouse.TherearehundredsofprivatewelldrillersinNigeria(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).

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Tanzania TheDrillingandDamConstructionAgency(DDCA)employsmanywelltraineddrillersandhydrogeologists.Itcoversabout60%ofthedrillingmarket.DDCAstaffskillsareunderutilisedwhileprivatesectorconsultantsarestilllacking(Baumannetal,2005).Privateenterpriseshavedrilledanestimated9,000privateboreholesinDarEsSalaam.

Uganda Alldrillingdonebyprivatecontractors.

4.3 BoreholeStandardsandDesignsWellsshouldbedesignedsothattheyarefitfortheirintendedpurpose(Carteretal,2006).Thismeansthatthediameter,depth,liningandbackfillmaterials,screenopenareaandotherdesignfeaturesshouldbewellmatchedtoneed(expressedaswaterdemand,longevity,hydraulicefficiencyandcost).Differentiatingbetweendifferentmagnitudesofabstractionrequirementsisparticularlyimportant.Unfortunately,thisisnotalwaysthecase,asshownbytheexamplesbelow.Doyen(2003)pointsoutthatoften,wellsdrilledforruralhandpumparebeingconstructedtogivehighyields,andareforcedtoconformtohigherstandardsnecessary.Wellyieldsof0.25l/sareadequateforhandpumpwells.Handpumpboreholesdiameterrequirementsandthesmalldiametersubmersiblepumpsthatarenowonthemarketmeanthat4(102mm)internaldiameterboreholesareusuallysufficient.However,diameterrequirementsvaryconsiderablybetweencountries:

Tanzaniatheinternaldiameterfordeepandshallowwellsarespecifiedat150mmand117mmrespectively.

Mozambique4casingisinstalled,buttherearenoofficialstandards(WeConsult,2006). InUganda45casingisspecified(MWE,2007a). SixinchcasingisusedinEthiopia,althoughdrillingdiametersareoften10or12(Carter,

2006). Malawispecifiestheinstallationof110mmcasing(Mthunzi,2004). InBurkinaFasoandSenegal,finaldrillingdiametersare8and12respectively(ANTEA,

2007). InNigeria,therearefivedifferentboreholedesignsdependingonthegeologyandaquifer

depthindifferentpartsofthecountry(AdekileandOlabode,2008b). InKenya,welldiametersforboreholeswithhandpumpsare152mm(Doyen,2003).

Incountrieswhereboreholesaredrilledintostablebasementformation,itispossibletomakesavingsbycasingthecollapsingformationonly,groutingatthejointtothehardformationonlyandnotcasingtheholedrilledintothebasement,asisthestandardinUganda(MWE,2007a).InTanzania,allboreholesarefullycasedandgravelpacked,althoughBaumannetal(2005)statethatthespecificationsarenotveryprecise.InNigeria,boreholesarelinedtothefulldepth.Concernsaboutsiltingofpartiallycasedboreholeshavebeenraised.AstudyinMalawi(Mthunzi,2004)of60partiallycasedand23fullycasedboreholesfoundthat73%ofthepartiallycasedboreholeshadnodepthreductionover46yearsandthat5%ofboreholesshowedanincreaseexceeding5%ofdatumdepth.Boreholeyieldswerecomparableforbothtypes.InKenya,drillerslobbiedGovernmentforsixyearstorelaxthedrillingspecificationsandthusdrillingandrigcostsbutdidnotsucceed.Partoftherationalforthisareplanstoupgradethesesourcestomotorisedpumpswithsmallpipeddistributionsystemsatalaterstage.However,giventheenormouschallengeofmeetingtheMDGs,thepaucityoffinanceanddifficultyinmaintaining

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existingruralwatersupplies,suchthinkingmaybetooadvancedformanycountries.Higherlevelsofabstractionalsoraisequestionswithrespecttowaterresources.Drillingbeyondtheoptimumyielddepthiscommon,withexamplesdocumentedinEthiopia(Carteretal,2006),Kenya(Doyen,2003)andNigeria(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).Doyen(2003)estimatesthatcostsavingsof25%couldbemadeinKenyaifdrillingwasnotbeyondtheoptimumyielddepth.Inthebasementcomplex,ageophysicalsurveycanprovideagoodindicationofdepthrequirementsandforsedimentaryformation;existingdrillingrecordscanbeusedtodeterminerealisticdrillingdepths.Thereisneedforcloseonsitesupervision,withthesupervisorhavingtheconfidenceandauthoritytodecidewhendepthissufficient.Itisenvisagedthattheincreasedcostofbettersupervisionwouldultimatelybeoffsetbyreduceddrillingcostsandimprovedconstructionquality.4.4 DrillingEquipmentSmallerandLessCostlyRigs

Itispreferablethatsmaller,lesscostlyequipmentbeusedtomatchfitforintendedpurposeboreholedesigns.Manualdrillingshouldbebroughtintothemainstreamofwatersupplyprogrammes,withappropriatequalitycontrol.Boreholecostsareaffectedbythetypeofequipmentused,withcheaperandlighterequipmentresultinginlowermobilisationcosts.Box2showsthedrillingcomponentforequipmentcostingUS$170,000.However,thetotalboreholecostalsoincludesmobilisation,installationandpumptest.Ball(2004)comparesdrillingwithequipmentcostingUS$470,000andUS$95,000andestimatesthatthepriceperborehole(includingoverheads)forthelargerrigis$8,837,whileboreholeswiththesmallerrigcostUS$2,652(afactorof3.3).Inmanycountries(egKenya,Ethiopia,Mozambique,Niger),therigsinuseareoversizedforthepurposeofdrillingruralhandpumpboreholes(Doyen,2003;Carteretal,2006;WEconsult,2006;Danert2007).InMozambique,onlyNGOsuselightrigswhileprivateenterprisesuselargeconventionalrigs(WEConsult,2006)whereasinNigeria,halfoftherigsencounteredonastudybyAdekileandOlabode(2008b)wereclassifiedaslighttomediumand30%werelocallymanufactured.Thereisatendencytooverestimaterequiredwelldepthandoverdrill,orspecifylargerigswhichhaveabearingontheequipmentthatdrillingenterprisesdecidetobuy(Carteretal,2006).Ifacontractorcanonlyinvestinonerig,hemaypurchasethelargestpossiblerig,toprovideflexibility.DiscussionswithGovernmentstakeholdersanddrillersinNiger(Danert,2005)andEthiopiarevealedalackofawarenessofnewlightconventionalrigsontheinternationalmarket.Stakeholdersmaybeawareofequipmentexistsbutunsureitscapabilityandwaryofclaimsmadebymanufacturers.Improvedaccesstoreliableinformationondrillingequipmentisessential.Baumannetal(2005)statethatmostdrillingoperatorsinTanzaniauseoldequipment,withtheresultthatbreakdownsarefrequentandtheperformanceisslow.MostofthedrillingequipmentinSenegal,BurkinaFaso,MaliandMauritaniaisold(someover30years)andlacksadequatemaintenance(ANTEA,2007).68%ofdrillingrigsinEthiopiaareolderthan15years(Carteretal,2006).Maintainingancientequipmentiscostlyandtimeconsumingandthewidevarietyofrigsinusemeansthatsparesneedtobesourcedfromallovertheworld.However,lackofinitialcapitalcanseriouslylimitonesoptionswithrespecttodrillingequipmentpurchase.

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Manual(orhand)drillingtechniquescanprovideaviablealternativeinparticularenvironments(softformationandshallowgroundwater).Apreliminaryanalysisofthepotentialforhanddrilledwellsintermsofgeologyandhydrogeologyestimatesthat12%ofthetotalpopulationofsubSaharanAfrica(SSA),or18%oftheruralpopulationofSSA,couldbeservedwithhanddrilledwells(Danert,2007).AdekileandOlabode(2008b)foundthatthecostofamanuallydrilledholeinNigeriawasaboutonethirdofaconventionallydrilledhole.WhilePractica(2005)claimthatinChad,theycostatenthofmachinedrilledwells.ManualdrillingtechniquesareusedinNiger,Benin,BurkinaFaso,Nigeria,Chad,Ethiopia,Mozambique,Malawi,Madagascar,SouthAfrica,SenegalandTanzania.InNigeria,adrillrigmanufacturingindustryisgrowing,withrigsavailableatamuchlowercostthanforimportedequipment,whichiscontributingtolowerdrillingcostswithanestimated30,000handdrilledwellsinexistence(fordomesticandirrigationwatersupply).ApparentlyinsomepartsofChadandNigeria,conventionaldrillerswincontractsandsubcontracttheworktohanddrillers.Aconcernraisedrepeatedlywithrespecttohanddrilledwellsitthatofconstructionquality,aswellaswaterquality.Itisessentialthattheseconcernsaretakenintoconcernwithappropriatequalityassurancemechanisms,aswellaswaterqualitytestingandremedialaction.4.5 ProcurementProcessSystematic,transparentandtimelyprocessesofadvertising,prequalification,tendering,evaluationandawardneedtobeestablishedandfollowed.Tenderingproceduresforprivatesectordrillinginmanycountriesarestillweakandprocedurescantakealongtime.Thisisnotgoodforbusinessandunnecessarilyincreasescostswhichinturnraisesdrillingpriceorcompromisesconstructionquality.

Adekile(2007)foundthatinNigeria,contractsareoftenawardedtononprofessionalswhothensubcontracttothedrillingcontractor,loweringtheprofitmarginandsometimescompromisingtechnicalstandards.InNigeria,numerousdrillerscomplainofnotbeingabletotenderforGovernmentastheydonotstandachange(AdekileandOlabode,2008b)

Inothercountries(egMalawiandUganda),therearecompanieswhichwillnottenderforworkwithcertainDistrictGovernments(Danert,2008a).

Baumannetal(2005)foundthattherewasnoprequalificationofbiddersinTanzaniaandthattenderevaluationsdidnotfindoutinconsistenciesinthecapabilitiesofdifferentbidders.

InEthiopia,considerableprocurementisunplanned,whichmeansthatisrathersudden,anddrivenbytheavailabilityoffunds.Insuchcasesthesequenceofstepsfollowedforopenandlimitedtendersarenotadheredto.

4.6 ContractPackagingTransportisamajorcostcomponentforboreholedrilling,whichcanbereducedbyclusteringwellstolimitexpenditure(Box2).Unfortunately,smallcontractpackagesarecommoninmanycountries(Table5).Notonlydotheseraisecosts(andprices),buttheydonotallowforlongtermplanningandinvestmentbyprivateenterprises.Table5Summaryofcontractpackagingarrangementsindifferentcountries

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Country ContractPackagingEthiopia Kenya Doyen(2003)estimatesthatcostscouldrisebyasmuchas25%ifdrillingcampaignsarenotin

economiclotsof50wellsormore.Nigeria Manycontractsarepackagedasoneortwoboreholes(Adekile,2007).Upto2008,UNICEF

contractedinlotsof5,butpaidforseparatemobilisationoneachbillofquantitiesratherthanonemobilisationfeeandpaymentformovementbetweensites(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).

Tanzania Therearecaseswhereacontractorhadtoenterfiveorsixcontractstodrillnineortenwells(Baumannetal,2005).

Uganda Eachof80Districtsannuallycontractsoutitsownboreholes:numbersofwellsdrilledaresmall(rangingfrom1to20in2007;average9.5in2008(MWE,2007b;MWE,2008),

Communitymobilisationeffortsandresponsetothedemanddrivenapproachbyendusersshouldbereconciledwithclusteringofwellstoachieveeconomiesofscale.Thisisnotalwayseasy.4.7 ProgrammeandContractManagementItisessentialthatdrillingprogrammes(whethernationalormorelocal)havesufficientskillstodesignandmanagetheprogrammesorbringinexpertise.Paymentforworksmustbetimely.Asmorecountriesmoveovertonationalprogrammes,oradheretosectorwideapproaches,thereisadangerthatexpertisewithrespecttoprogrammemanagementaswellasdrillingcontactisinsufficient.Wheregovernmentsarechangingrolefromimplementertothatofserviceprovider,orasmoreresponsibilitiesaregiventoDistrictlevel,skillsmaybelacking.InTanzania,forexample,modeldocumentsfortendering,evaluationandcontractswerelackingandtherewerenocontractmanagementguidelines(Baumann,2005).Althoughpoorlydocumented,anecdotalevidencesuggeststhatthisisanareawhichisparticularlyweakinmanycountries.Tomakemattersworse,understaffedministriesandlocalGovernmentofficesarenotuncommon.Paymentsystemsforwaterwelldrillingvaryconsiderably.InNigeria,MalawiandMozambiqueitiscommonfordrillingcontractorstobepaidforageophysicalsurveyandonlytobepaidforsuccessfulwells.InUganda,paymentistheoreticallyagainstabillofquantities,butthisisnotalwaysfollowed(Danert,2008a).Ithasbeenstronglyarguedthatsuchamechanismincreasesprices,asdrillerstakeintoaccountofrisk.InMozambique,paymentdelaysofthreemonthsarecommoninGovernmentprojectsbutthereareexampleswheredelayshavebeenforseveralyears(WEConsult,2006).4.8 SitingPracticesAppropriatesitingpracticesshouldbeutilized.Improvementsinknowledgeofhydrogeology(seesection4.11and4.12)andenhancedexperienceinsitesurveycanincreasedrillingsuccessrates,andreducethedisparitybetweenanticipatedandactualdrillingdepths.Professionalsitinginvolvesdeskandfieldreconnaissance,butdoesnotalwaysrequiretheuseofgeophysics(MacDonaldetal,2005).Inmanycountriesintheregion,drillersthemselvesundertakethesiting,andaresubsequentlyonlypaidforasuccessfulwell.Inmanycountriesthereisatendencytospecifygeophysicsondrillingsites,evenwhereitisnotnecessary.AdekileandOlabode(2008b)pointoutthatonsomeoftheconsolidatedsedimentsinNigeria,areviewofexistingboreholedatawouldbemoreapplicableindeterminingdepthsthangeophysics.InTanzania,whensiting,consultantsarerequiredtoundertakeageophysicalsurveyusingatleasttwomethods,includingaVESresistivelysurvey,whichisnotalwaysnecessary

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(Baumann,2005).Doyen(2003)reportsonaKenyandrillingprogrammewhereblinddrillinganduseofgeophysicaltechniquesachieved51%and89%successrespectively.Howeverwhentryingtolocatewaterinfracturedbedrock,geophysicaltechniquesmaysignificantlyimprovesuccessrates.InthechallenginghydrogeologicalconditionsofMauritania,therearebetweentwoandthreereconnaissancewellsdrilledpersuccessfulwell(ANTEA,2007).4.9 SupervisionHighqualityandtimelyconstructionsupervisionneedstobeemphasised.Doyen(2003)states:overdrillingisroughlyinverselyproportionaltothedegreeofsupervisionofdrillingoperations.Thequalityofdrillingsupervision(includingknowledgeofthelocalphysicalandhydrogeologicalenvironment)andonsiteauthorityareimportant.Degreecoursesingeologyandhydrogeologydonotprovidegraduateswithasolidfoundationindrillingsupervision.Itisnotuncommonfordrillerstocomplainaboutbeingsupervisedbyinexperiencedhydrogeologists,straightoutofuniversity.Somedrillersusetheirmonopolyonknowledgeandexploitthis.Whensupervisorsarenotabletotakeapromptdecision,drillerswillincurwaitingtime,whichcansignificantlyraisethecostofdrilling.Unfortunately,supervisioncapacityisextremelylimitedinmuchofsubSaharanAfricaandisakeyreasonforboreholefailureeg:

InNigeriathecapacityforpropersupervision,intermsofexperiencedpersonnelandequipmentislimitedatStatelevelAdekileandOlabode(2008b).KadunaStateMinistryofWaterResourcesrealisedthattheydidnothavesufficientcompetencetosupervisetheirdrillingprogrammesandinvestedintraining(Adekile,2007).TheNigerianFederalGovernmentandexternalsupportagenciesengageconsultantstocarryoutdrillingsupervision(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).

InMalawi,thereareonlyahandfulofhydrogeologistsinthecountry.Supervisionoftestpumpingisoftentheonlyprofessionalsupervisionthattakesplace.Communitiesareexpectedtoundertakeacertainamountofdrillingsupervision(forwhichtheyaregivennomorethantwodaystraining)(BaumannandDanert,2008).

InUgandasupervisioniseitherundertakenbyprivateconsultantsorbyDistrictGovernmentdependingonwhoisfinancingthework.

InEthiopia,supervisionisundertakendirectlybytheWaterBureauxorthroughhiredconsultantswithvariationregardingthelevelofsupervisionandstrictness.Contractorscitelackoftimelydecisionmakingbysupervisorsasafrequentproblem(Carter,2006).

4.10 PumpingTest

Testpumpingrequirementsshouldbematchedtoboreholepurposewhiletakingintoaccounttheimportanceofdatatoimprovetheunderstandingofhydrogeologyandwaterresources.Doyen(2003)estimatesthat7%savingswouldbepossibleinKenyaifa3hour,ratherthana24hourdischargeand12hourrecoverywasusedtotestpumpruralhandpumpwells.Thehighstandardstestpumpingrequirementsareintendedtoobtainasmuchhydrogeologicalinformationabouttheaquiferinthevicinityoftheboreholeaspossible.Doyen(2003)statesthatalthoughpermeterdrillingcostsinKenyafellby35%between1988and1996,theincreasedstandardsforwelldevelopment,pumptestingandwelldesignincreasedcostsbyasmuchas36%withtheresultthat

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therewerenonetsavings.Tanzaniaspecifiesa24hourpumpingtest(Baumann,2005).InNigeria,pumpingtestshavebeenmatchedtoboreholepurposeforseveralyears,boththeFederalMinistryofWaterResourceandStateprojectusuallyspecifypumpingtestsof2to6hoursforhandpumpsand8to24hoursformotorisedschemes.4.11 GroundwaterResourcesMonitoringandEvaluation

Rigorousevaluationofgroundwaterresourcesshouldbeundertakenandinformationmadeavailable.MacDonaldandDavies(2000)pointoutthat:sustainabilityofgroundwatersupplies;overexploitationinsedimentarybasins;variationsinnaturalwaterqualityandcontaminationofgroundwaterdemandmoreattention.Thereisanurgentneedforimprovedgroundwaterresourcesmonitoring:

GroundwaterlevelsappeartohavefalleninsomepartsofNigeriaandithasbeensuggestedthatintensivedrillingintheurbanareasofLagosandKanoStatecouldleadtowaterleveldecline(Adekile,2007;AdekileandOlabode,2008b).

ArsenichasbeenreportedinsomepartsofNigeriabutitisnottestedforinwatersupplyprojects.

4.12 HydrogeologicalData

Hydrogeologicaldatacollectionandstorageshouldbeundertaken.MacDonaldandDavies(2000)provideanoverviewofthefourmainhydrogeologicalenvironmentsinSSA(crystallinebasement40%oflandarea;volcanicrocks6%;consolidatedsedimentaryrocks32%unconsolidatedsediments22%)andthedifferentmethodsforfindingandabstractinggroundwaterfromeach.Differenthydrogeologyrequiresdifferentlevelsoftechnicalcapacityfordevelopment,andmuchisstillnotknownaboutgroundwaterinAfrica(MacDonaldandDavies,2000).Hydrogeologicaldataisextremelyimportantandinsufficientattentiontothestorage,analysisandutilisationofdrillingdataisalostopportunity.UnfortunatelycoordinatedresearchanddatacollectionongroundwaterinSSAhasbecomeincreasinglydifficult.Mistakesarerepeated,whileinformationfromthousandsofboreholesisnotcollected.InTanzania,forexampleonly60%to70%ofboreholesdrilledbytheParastatalarerecordedinthecentraldatabaseandrecordsfromindustryandminingarenotincludedatall(Baumannetal,2005).However,knowledgeofhydrogeologyinNigeriahasimprovedconsiderablyovertheyearsanddatahasbeencollectedwithaviewtopublishinghydrogeologicalmaps(AdekileandOlabode,2008b)andhydrogeologicalmappingisunderwayinEthiopiaandUganda.Simpletechniquesforthecollectionandanalysisofhighvaluedatafromdrillingprogrammesexist,butareinadequatelyused.ThisisamissedopportunityforsignificantlyenhancingtheknowledgebaseofgroundwaterAfrica,andenablingissuesforspecificresearchtobeidentifiedandtargeted.MacDonaldandDavies(2000)advocateforthedisseminationofsimpletechniquesongroundwaterresourceassessmenttostakeholdersinvolvedinruralwatersupply.

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4.13 RegulationandprofessionalismoftheprivatesectorAstrongpublicsectorisneededtooverseeandregulatetheprivatesector.Theprivatesectorneedsbetteraccesscreditandshouldprofessionalise.ThepublicsectorinmanysubSaharancountriesisstillstrugglingtofulfilitsemergingregulatoryrole.Regulationonnumberofemployeesandequipmentisdemandinginsomecountries,egEthiopia(Carteretal,2006)andlackinginothers,egNigeria(Adekile,2007).AlthoughdrillingpermitsareissuedinTanzania,theyarenotbasedonconsistentprofessionalassessmentsofthecompanies,andqualityisnotmonitoredinaregularbasis(Baumann,2005).If35,000wellsaretobedrilledannuallyinsubSaharanAfrica,andeachrigdrills100wellsperyear,thecontinentneedssome3,500drillingrigs.Evenifasmanyas20%oftheseareownedbyNGOsandGovernment,thisstillleavesarequirementofsome2,800privatelyownedrigs.However,theprivatesectorhasnowherenearthiscapacityi4.SomecountriessuchasNigeriaandUgandahaveconsiderablenationalexpertisewhileothersarestillheavilyreliantonforeigncompanies.Costsofexpatriatestaff(fromEurope,Australasia,JapanandNorthAmerica)aremoreexpensivethanlocalstaff,iefourtoeighttimesasmuchinBurkinaFaso,Senegal,MaliandMauritania(ANTEA,2007).Productivityratesareoftenlowduetotheuseofoldequipment,challengesofobtainingsparesandlackofmaintenanceskillsaswellaslackofsteadywork.Obtainingregularworkisessentialtoenablecapitalintensivedrillingenterprisestoremaininbusiness,andbecosteffective.However,contractorsgenerallyhavetotenderforworkeveryyear,andformanydifferentprojectsorlocalauthorities.Onlyonedocumentedcaseofadrillingconcession,runningoverseveralyearshasbeenfoundintheliterature(Robinson,2006).LowproductivityoftheprivatesectorfliesinthefaceofargumentsagainstuseofGovernmentequipmentduetolowproductivity.

Settingupinbusinesscanbeextremelydifficultwhichmakesitverydifficultforenterprisestoenterthesector.TherearecasesinMozambiquewhereithastakenthreeyearsforacompanytoestablishitself(WEConsult,2006).Therearemanyexamplesofpeoplewiththeskills,butnotthefinancestoinvest.Conventionaldrillingisaverycapitalintensiveundertaking.Therearechallengeswiththebankingsectoracrossthecontinent.Interestratesonloansarehigh,eg2040%inMozambique(WEConsult2006);18%inTanzania(Baumann,2005).Repaymentperiodscanbeshort,eg3yearsinTanzania(Baumann,2005).InNigeria,peoplegenerallyusetheirownsavingsandthoseofrelativesasstartupcapital.Therearemajordifficultiesofshowingsufficientcollateraltoobtaincreditthroughouttheregion.CommercialbanksinTanzaniarequireasecurityof125%andtheassuranceofcontinualGovernmentwork(Baumann,2005).Existing,andpotentialdrillersareoftencashstrapped(Baumann,2005).Delaysinpaymentforworkcompleted(seesection4.7)exacerbatethisproblem.Importationofequipmentandsparescanbeverydifficultifcontractorsdonothaveforeignconnections(Carteretal,2006;Robinson,2006;Adekile,2007).

4Capacityintheregionincludesanestimated49privateenterprisesinBurkinaFaso,10inMalawi,about21inMozambiqueover1000inNigeria,about40inTanzania(ofwhichonlytenworkintheruralareas).

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Thecapabilityandavailabilityofskilledpersonnel(professionalsandtechnicians)isanissueforboththepublicandprivatesector.Manydrillers,supervisorsandtechnicalstaffwereoriginallyworkingforGovernmentandtrainedwithinprojects.Giventheshiftinemphasistodecentralisedservicedeliverybytheprivatesector,thereareseriousquestionsregardingadequateopportunitiesfortrainingandskillsdevelopment.Ethiopiaisacaseinpoint,whereanestimated4,000techniciansareneededtoenabletheMDGwatertargettobemet(Carter,2006).However,thereisonlyonetrainingschoolwhere200aretrainedperyear.ContractorsinNigeriaandEthiopiafaceproblemsinretainingpersonnelduetoskillsshortages(Adekile,2007;Carteretal,2006).Networking,collaborationandlobbyingarerecognisedasimportantmechanismstoprofessionalizeorganisationsandbringaboutpolicyshifts.DrillersAssociationsinMozambiqueandNigeriahaverecentlybeenestablished,initiallywithdonorsupport.InMozambique,theassociationsuccessfullylobbiedformorerealisticcontracttermsandconditions.TheUgandaDrillersAssociationhadcollapsedby2003,althoughdrillershaverecentlycollaboratedtodemystifytaxprocedures.TheProjectManagementUnitinSouthSudanprovidesaninterestingexampleofdrillingenterpriseswhicharecollaboratingwitheachother.Documentationandanalysisofthesuccessofnetworkingandcollaborationofdrillersislacking,butevidencefromothersectorsindicatesthatitcouldbeinstrumentalinbringingaboutpositivechange.

5 ConclusionsandRecommendationsSimplecomparisonsofboreholecostsbetweencountriesandprogrammescanbemisleading.Inordertobetterunderstandcostvariations,astandardaccountingframeworkisneeded,aswellamethodologyformodellingkeyvariables.Thecostingofboreholesneedstobedemystifiedtosectorstakeholderssothattheycanbetterunderstandhowtheyarecalculated.Thiscouldimprovetenderevaluation.Asimplebutrobusttoolforsensitivityanalysisregardingdepth,rigamortization,distanceanddrillingtimecouldproveveryuseful.Theconceptualframeworksetoutinthispaperprovidesinsightsintotheissuesthataffectboreholecostsandprices,aswellasconstructionquality.Therearenosingle,simplemagicbullets.Eachparticularcountryandspecificprojecthasitsownstrengthsandweaknesseswithrespecttocosteffectiveboreholeprovision.Thepapershowsanumberofinitiativeswhicharealreadytakingplace(egdrillersassociationsinNigeriaandMozambique).Inaddition,stepsarebeingtakentodevelopnationalcodesofpracticeforcosteffectiveboreholes(egNigeria).Inordertobettermovetowardsimprovingthecosteffectivenessofboreholedrillinginspecificcontext,itisrecommendedthatasafirststep,stakeholdersusetheconceptualframeworktoanalyseboreholecosting,appreciatethecorefactors,andundertakeapreliminaryanalyseofthekeyelementsatnationallevelandforspecificprogrammes.Thisshouldenableaspectsthatcanbedealtwithrelativelyquicklyandeasily,andthosewhichneedlongertermeffortstobeidentified.Insomecases,thescopeforimprovementiscloselyconfinedwithinthenarrowconfinesofaparticularproject,whileinothers,nationalconsensusorchangeoflegislationmayberequired.Inthecaseofverylargecountries,orthosewherethereisconsiderabledecentralisation,prioritisationandactionislikelytoberequiredatasubnationalaswellasatnationallevels.Itshouldbewellappreciatedthatunderlyingalloftheelementssetoutinthispaperareinherentstructuralstrengthsandweaknesses.Ingeneral,thereisneedforconcertedandlongterminvestmentinhumanresources,institutionbuildingandbettermonitoringandinformationsystems

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aswellasstrengtheningtheregulatoryframework.Improvedtransparencyintermsofreportingandpublishinginputsandprogrammeoutputsisalsocriticaltoenablebetterscrutinyofprogrammes.However,withoutsufficientfinancialresourcesdecisionmakerswillbefacedwithveryharddecisionssuchaswhethertofocusongroundwaterresourcesmonitoring,improvesupervisioncapacityortodeveloprobustoperationandmaintenancesystems.Itwouldbeprudenttoutilisethethirteenelementsasabasisforbenchmarkingthedrillingsectorinaparticularcountryorforaparticularprogramme.Suchbenchmarkingcouldbeundertakenundertheumbrellaofagenericandnationalcodeofpracticeforcosteffectiveboreholes.However,thereisneedforpoliticalandtechnicalbuyinatinternationalaswellasnationalleveltoenablesuchaninitiativetohaveasignificantimpact.AcknowledgementsTheauthorsextendthankstoWSPAF,SDCandUNICEFwhichhavesupportedtheCostEffectiveBoreholesflagshipoftheRuralWaterSupplyNetwork(RWSN),thusenablingthispapertobeprepared.

6 ReferencesAdekile,D.2007.TheDrillingEnvironmentandEstablishingaDrillersAssociationinNigeria.SummaryreportRWSN/WSP.Nairobi,Kenya.Adekile,DandOlabodeO.2008a.StudyofPublicandPrivateBoreholeDrillinginNigeriaExecutiveSummary.ConsultancyReportforUNICEFNigeriaWashSection.Abuja,Nigeria.Adekile,DandOlabodeO.2008b.ReportoncomparisonofCostEffectiveboreholeDrillingintheProjectSatesandotherProgrammes.ConsultancyReportforUNICEFNigeriaWashSection.Abuja,Nigeria.Adekile,DandOlabodeO.2009.StudyofPublicandPrivateBoreholeDrillinginNigeriaConsultancyReportforUNICEFNigeriaWashSection.ANTEA.2007.EtudesurloptimisationducotdesforagesenAfriquedelOuestRapportdeSynthse.Juin2007.BanqueMondialeProgrammePoutLEauetLAssainissementAfrique(PEAAF)Ball,Peter.2004.SolutionsforReducingBoreholeCostsinAfrica.FieldNote.WSP/RWSN/SKATBaumannE,BallP.andBeyeneA.2005.RationalizationofDrillingOperationsinTanzania.ReviewoftheBoreholeDrillingSectorinTanzania.ConsultancyreportofWorldBank.BaumannEandDanertK.2008OperationandMaintenanceofRuralWaterSuppliesinMalawiStudyFindings.FinalDraftConsultancyReportforUNICEFMalawi.Lilongwe,Malawi.Carter,RC,DestaH,EtsegenetB,EyobB,EyobD,YetnayetNe,BeleteMandDanertK.2006.DrillingforWaterinEthiopia:aCountryCaseStudybytheCostEffectiveBoreholesFlagshipoftheRuralWaterSupplyNetwork.FederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia/WSP/RWSN.Doyen,J.2003.AcomparativeStudyonWaterWellDrillingCostsinKenya.UnpublishedReport.ResearchcommissionedbyUNDPWaterandSanitationProgrammeoftheWorldBank

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Danert,K.2005.CosteffectiveBoreholesScopingStudy.VisitReportforRWSN/WSP.Danert,K.2007.NigerRWSNFocusCountry,Report1.ConsultancyReportforRWSN/WSPDanert,K.2008a.PersonalCommunicationwithPrivateDrillingContractorsinUganda(September2008)Danert,K.2008b.PersonalCommunicationwithPrivateDrillingContractorsinMalawi(November2008).MacDonald,A,Davies,J,CalowRandChiltonJ.2005.DevelopingGroundwater.AguideforRuralWaterSupply,ITDGPublishing.Mthunzi,M.2004.MonitoringofPartiallyCasedBoreholes.ResearchReportofConcernUniversal.MWE.2007a.UgandaWaterandSanitationSectorDistrictImplementationManual.MinistryofWaterandEnvironment,GovernmentofUganda.MWE.2007b.UgandaWaterandSanitationSectorPerformanceReport2007.MinistryofWaterandEnvironment,Kampala,Uganda.MWE.2008.UgandaWaterandSanitationSectorPerformanceReport2008.MinistryofWaterandEnvironment,Kampala,Uganda.Practica.2005.ReportPhase1.AssessmentofthefeasibilityofmanualdrillinginChad.PracticaFoundation.ConsultancyReportforUNICEF.Rowles,R.1995.DrillingforWaterAPracticalManual,Avebury,AshgatePublishingCompany,Aldershot,UK1995Robinson,A.2006.WhoisgoingtodrilltheAfricanBoreholes?FieldNote.WSP/RWSNWurzel,P.2001.DrillingBoreholesforHandpumps.SKATWorkingPapersonWaterSupplyandSanitation,No2.SKAT,StGallen,Switzerland.WEConsult.2006.AssessmentoftheNationalDrillingSectorCapacityforRuralWaterSupplyinMozambique.Executivesummary.ConsultancyReportPreparedforWSPandDNA.